J7U6 



DEPARTMENT Of COMMERCE AND LABOR 

BUREAU OF MANUFACTURES 
JOHN M. CARSON, Chief 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE 



IN 



TURKISH EMPIRE, GREECE, AND ITALY 



By 

W. A. GRAHAM GLARK 

Special Agent of the Department of Commerce and Labor 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1908 




^ 




Book r Tl (J &_ 
Copy 2. 



DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR 

BUREAU OF MANUFACTURES 
JOHN M. CARSON, Chief 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE 



IN 



TURKISH EMPIRE, GREECE, AND ITALY 



By 

W. A. GRAHAM CLARK 

Special Agent of the Department of Commerce and Labor 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1908 



Z^l^i 2- 



T] 



/ 



)UH 30 W08 
D. otD. 










CONTENTS 



Page. 



Letter of submittal . 



5 I Introduction. 



Page. 



TURKISH EMPIRE. 



General trade review: 
European monopoly of the market — 
Commercial awakening — American in- 
fluence now being felt — Business meth- 
ods and suggestions 

Discrepancies in statistics — Countries 

showing gains 

Distribution of imports and exports 

American trade and influence 

Principal articles of trade 

Distribution of commerce 

B usiness methods 

Cash and credit' 

Value of local agents— An American 

bank needed 

Importance of cotton textile trade- 
Opportunities for increased sales of 

American products 

Variety and value of imports 

Sources of supply 

Cotton yarn and threads 

Conditions which hamper trade exten- 
sion 

Important suggestions 

European Turkey: 
Valuable market for piece goods — 
Area, population, and commercial im- 
portance — Consumption and exports 

of native products 

Native cotton growing 

Cotton imports and manufactures 

Money, weights, and measures 

Constantinople — 
An important cotton goods mart con- 
trolled by Europeans 

Freight rates and banking facilities 

Large cotton goods trade — British mo- 
nopoly 

Italy and Austria strong competitors.. 
Saloniki— 
An important commercial port — Local 

and interior trade. . _■ 

Native hand manufacture — Credits 

Asia Minor: 

Opportunities for development — 
Area, population, and railroads — A 
market worthy of close study by 

American exporters 

Smyrna — 
Growing trade importances — Shipping 

and banking facilities 

Character and value of exports 

European imitations of American cot- 
ton goods 

Cotton goods imports and freight rates 

Character of piece goods consumed 

Credits — Yarn imports and prices 



13 

13 
14 
14 
15 
16 
17 
17 

18 



18 
19 
20 
20 

21 
22 



23 
23 
24 
24 



24 
25 



25 
26 



27 
27 



28 



28 
29 

29 
30 
30 
31 



Asia Minor— Continued. 
Smyrna — Continued. 

European terms of sale — English mo- 
nopoly being broken 

Syria: 
Importance as a market — 

vVrea, population, cities, and develop- 
ment — Classes of goods consumed 
by the people 

Railway development 

Textile trade — Kinds of goods worn 

Beirut — 

Large cotton goods imports — Steam- 
ship and cable facilities 

T cloth and shirtings 

Prints and gray sheetings 

Muslins and other goods 

Terms of sale — Yarn imports 

English prices for dyeing 

Jerusalem — 

American business enterprises— Value 
of the tourist trade 

Supplies obtained mainly from Beirut.. 

Classes of piece goods used — Yarn im- 
ports 

Mails and freight rates — Retail mer- 
chants 

Haifa — 

Present and future importance — Freight 

rates and routes 

Damascus — 

Importance as a trade distributing 
center 

Population and bazaars 

The cloth bazaar 

Garments of the people 

Cotton goods trade 

Market requirements and business 
methods 

Chances for American agencies — Yarn 
imports 

Damascus manufactures 

Description of the striped goods made . 
Egypt: 
Decline in production of textiles — 

Manufacturing now limited to one mill 
and scattered hand looms— Causes of 
present conditions 

Handicaps to cotton manufacturing 

Description of the existing mill— Classes 
of output 1 .- 

Yarn and cloth exports 

Wages paid and cotton used 

Operation of hand looms 

Exports of cotton goods to Egypt- 
Decrease in plain and increase in colored 
piece goods 

American textiles in Egypt 

3 



32 



33 
33 
34 



35 
35 
36 
36 
37 
38 



38 
39 

39 

40 

40 



41 
42 
43 
43 
44 

44 

45 
46 
46 



48 

48 

49 
49 
50 
50 



51 

51 



CONTENTS. 



GrlvICICO K. 



Commercial importance: 
An attractive market for textiles — 

Steady growth in sales of cotton goods- 
Advantages offered American manu- 
facturers 

Business methods — Emigration helpful 
to American trade 

Cotton industry — Local mills and their 
products 

Changing clothing customs — Fluctuat- 
ing currency 

Growth and consumption of cotton 



Page. 



55 

55 

56 

57- 
57 



Commercial importance— Continued. 
An attractive market for textiles — Con. 
Complaints regarding American cotton. 

Trade in cotton yarn and thread. 

Cotton piece goods 

Detailed cotton goods imports 

Print goods preferences — Styles of white 

shirting desired 

Large importations of gray goods 

Drills, flannels, and worsteds 

Greek textile tariff 

Direct steamship lines 



Page. 

58 
58 
59 
60 

60 

61 
62 
62 
63 



IT^lLY. 



Growth of manufactures: 
Importance of cotton goods industry — 
Decreased imports and increased for- 
eign sales — Location and methods of 

the mills 67 

Spuming spindles and power looms 68 

Industry centered in northern Italy 68 

System of manufacture and number of 

mills 69 

Distribution and classification of es- 
tablishments 70 

Extensive use of hand looms 70 

Cotton-mill development — Lack of raw 

materials 71 

New law affecting women and children 

in mills 72 

Mill machinery — Imports and domestic 

production 72 

Motive power used and capital in- 
vested 72 

Milan the center of the cotton industry . . 73 
Italian demand for foreign cotton 

goods 74 

Catering to foreign markets 74 

Agreement governing home sales 75 

Filing of claims and exceptions al- 
lowed 75 

Conditions of sale, forwarding, and pay- 
ment 76 

Cotton mills: 
Details of operating methods — 
Products of a successful mill near Na- 
ples—Equipment one of the best in 

Italy 77 

Calico designing and printing 78 

Wide-awake business methods — Opera- 
tives and wages 78 

Equipment and output of a mill in Milan 

Province '. 79 

Weekly wages of employees 79 

A typical modem mill 80 

Direct motor-driven machinery — Ar- 
rangement of mill 80 

Spinning and weaving processes 81 

Wages of spinners and weavers 81 

A Turin fancy weaving mill 82 

Preparation of the yarn 83 



Cotton mills— Continued. 
Details of operating methods — Cont'd. 

Yarn printing and beam warping 

Looms and weaving prices 

Combined hand and power loom estab- 
lishment 

Equipment, wages, and other details 

Other large mills in Italy 

Financial showing of leading mills 

Ring versus mule spinning costs — 

New mills generally being equipped with 
ring frames 

Permanent investment 

Number and cost per day of operatives. 

General expenses and spinning costs per 

pound 

Mill labor: 
Conditions and wages — 

Gradual increase in pay scale and 
scarcity of operatives — Effects of 
changing conditions 

Hours of labor — Women and children 
employees 

Lunch hours, payment of wages, and 
time keeping 

Basis of mill wages 

Manner of living of the mill workers 

Efficiency of the operatives 

Causes and results of strikes 

Cotton goods exports: 
Steady growth of the industry — 

Extent of foreign trade — Competition 
with the United States in various 
countries 

Cost of raw cotton to manufacturers.. 

Prices of yarn in Milan 

Imports and exports of yarns and cloth. 

Details showing value of trade 

Countries to which exports are made. . . 

Classes of cottons exported 

Exports to Turkey— Credit terms and 
agencies 

Trad* with other countries 

Aids to Italian foreign business 

Leading export companies 

Advantages of Italian manufacturers — 
Freight rates 



84 
84 

85 
86 

86 
87 



87 



89 



91 

91 

92 
93 
94 
94 
95 



97 
98 
99 
99 
100 
101 
101 

102 
103 
103 
104 

105 



LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. 



Milan, Italy, January 15, 1908. 

Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith reports on the import 
trade of and industrial conditions in the Mediterranean countries, Italy, 
Greece, Turkey, and Egypt, with special reference to textiles. 

A study of cotton manufacturing in Italy discloses interesting con- 
ditions that have some comparative hearing on the American industry- 
while the facts brought out in connection with the reports on Greece, 
Turkey, and Egypt show an immense volume of trade, in which the 
manufacturers of the United States might secure an important share. 

It is to be hoped that the information presented will lead to these 
markets being more thoroughly exploited for the sale of American cot- 
ton fabrics and of other products of American manufacture. 
Respectfully, 

W. A. Graham Clark, 
Special Agent of the Department of Commerce and Labor. 

To Hon. Oscar S. Straus, 

Secretary of Commerce and Labor. 

5 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE, 
GREECE, AND ITALY. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The following reports by Special Agent Clark covering the cotton 
industries and trade of Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Egypt are continua- 
tions of the volume issued from the Bureau of Manufactures in the 
early part of 1907, entitled, " Foreign Markets for the Sale of Ameri- 
can Cotton Products." While. the aim and scope of these additional 
reports relate to the cotton goods trade of the several countries treated 
of, Special Agent Clark covers their general trade, as being necessary 
to a full understanding of the conditions prevailing there, and the 
best means by which American manufacturers can reach the several 
markets. 

The report covering the cotton goods trade of Turkey in Asia gives a 
comprehensive elucidation of the trade of a vast and complicated dis- 
trict, containing a large population with peculiar tastes in the matter 
of cotton textiles — tastes fully catered to by European agents and fac- 
tors. Those portions of Mr. Clark's report covering cash and credits, 
business methods, conditions which hamper trade extension, freight 
rates, and banking facilities, and European imitations of American 
cloth, are of special interest /to American manufacturers. 

As a rule the trade of Turkey has been grouped under one head, 
which is not only confusing but very misleading, as the cotton goods 
trade of Turkey in Asia is at least double that of Turkey in Europe, not 
taking into account the cottons received in Turke} r in Europe and 
thence passed on to Asia. 

According to Turkish returns, as given by Special Agent Clark, the 
total imports of cotton goods into Turkey during the year ended 
March 31, 1906, amounted to $31,270,003, imported from the follow- 
ing countries : United Kingdom, $21,662,929; Italy, $3,146,891; Aus- 
tria-Hungary, $2,654,725; Germany, $1,094,903; France, $1,025,768; 
all other countries, $1,693,697. All kinds of cotton manufactures are 
embraced in this schedule, although piece goods compose the greater 
portion. 

As the United Kingdom may be said to dominate the cotton goods 
trade of Turkey, and as British piece goods come nearest to American 

7 



8 INTRODUCTION. 

piece goods in quality and price of the manufactures of any other coun- 
try, it is only necessary to give a few details concerning these to enable 
American factors to reach a very close estimate of their ability to com- 
pete in the markets of Turkey with other countries for any large por- 
tion of this trade. 

The exports of British cotton piece goods to Turkey during the cal- 
endar year 1906 amounted to 478,880,500 yards and during 1907 to 
401,335,200 yards, valued at $23,931,595 and $21,706,968, respec- 
tively, a loss of 77,543,300 yards and $2,224,627, which, according to 
Mr. Clark, was due to Italian and Austrian competition. 

The United Kingdom exported to Turkey during the year 1906 
cotton yarns to the value of $3,147,298, and 1907 $2,654,282, a decrease 
of $493,016. The exports of all other cotton goods (sewing thread, 
hosiery, etc.) from the United Kingdom to Turkey in 1906 amounted 
to $1,335,721, of which nearly one-half went to Turkey in Asia. Thus 
the total exports of cotton manufactures from the United Kingdom to 
Turkey in 1906 amounted to $28,414,614, instead of $21,662,929, as 
given in Turkish returns. 

The exports of American cotton manufactures to Turkey for the 
fiscal year 1906 amounted to only $208,356, the greater portion going 
to Turkey in Asia. 

For the fiscal year 1906 the direct shipments of American cotton 
textiles to Turkish ports amounted to $249,453. The largest item 
was of unbleached or gray goods, of which 1,390,529 yards, valued 
at $95,760, went to Turkey in Asia, and 591,884 yards, valued at 
$41,843, went to Turkey in Europe. The export of bleached goods 
from the United States to Turkey in 1907 aggregated 74,358 yards, 
worth $6,201, dyed goods, worth $29,262, and wearing apparel, etc., 
$4,387. The foregoing furnishes the basis and entering wedge for 
what should develop into a substantial trade. 

The imports of cotton manufactures into Greece in 1906, as given by 
Mr. Clark, amounted to $2,022,896, besides cotton yarns, which were 
imported to the value of $261,356. The exports of British piece goods 
to Greece during the years 1906 and 1907 amounted to $1,967,258 and 
$2,067,123, respectively. 

The total value of British cotton manufactures (piece goods, yarns, 
and all other manufactures) exported to Greece in 1906, the latest year 
for which full returns are available, amounted to $2,527,732, or 
$243,480 more than such imports into Greece from all countries during 
that year, according to Greek statistics. Tins, at least, shows the pre- 
dominance of British cottons in the Greek trade. Mr. Clark calls 
attention to the fact that he saw special brands of American piece 
goods in Greek shops. 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

An item of special interest in Mr. Clark's report is that relating to 
four direct steamship lines now plying between Greece and the United 
States, whereby American products can be delivered in that Kingdom 
in shorter time and at lower rates than from Liverpool, a fact which 
should be taken advantage of by American producers generally. 

In his report on Italy, Mr. Clark says: "The greatest article of 
manufacture in Italy is cotton, and the product of the cotton mills 
forms by far the largest item in the list of manufactures exported." 

Very few have given consideration to Italy as a cotton manufac- 
turer, but all who read the report on the development of this great 
industry in that Kingdom will perceive that Italy is beginning to dispute 
the world's markets with the older manufacturing countries. 

As in nearly all manufacturing countries, Italy is still indebted to 
foreign countries for some special classes of foreign cotton goods, 
such as thread, twine, colored or dyed piece goods, made-up goods, 
cotton oilcloth, etc., of which it imported $5,357,921 worth in 1906, 
perhaps relatively the smallest import of any of the manufacturing 
countries of Europe. 

The exports of cotton manufactures of all kinds from Italy in 1906 
amounted to $23,097,156, composed of the following: Yarns, etc., 
$4,506,504; colored or dyed piece goods, $10,713,884; printed piece 
goods, $2,675,055; other piece goods, $2,298,484; total piece goods, 
$15,687,423; all other cottons, $3,103,229. As noted by Mr. Clark, 
this shows a steady increase in the exports of cotton manufactures 
for Italy, the amount in 1895 having been only $4,711,000, 

The fact that Italy, after importing all the raw material, the greater 
portion from the United States, should be able to build up a large 
and growing trade in Argentina, Turkey, Egypt, etc., should con- 
vince American manufacturers, who have the raw materials at their 
mill doors, that there is no market so guarded or possessed by foreign 
factors wherein, by comprehensive and steady effort, trade can not 
be built up. 

Mr. Clark's report, not only as it relates to the cotton goods trade 
but for its valuable information covering the organization and work- 
ing of Italian mills, the relations existing between employers and 
employees, as well as the living conditions, wages, and efficiency of 
the latter, deserve the special consideration of American mill em- 
ployers and employees, as, in the main, these " efficiencies " in the 
production of cotton goods are those which must be met and over- 
come in all American efforts to secure a fair share of the world's 
trade. 

According to a report from Consul-General Iddings, of Cairo, the 
imports of cotton manufactures into Egypt amounted to $30,264,245 
and $30,504,175 in 1906 and 1907, respectively. The exports of 
British piece goods to Egypt during the same years amounted to 



10 INTRODUCTION. 

$14,032,746 and $13,774,225, respectively. The total exports of 
British cottons of all kinds to Egypt in 1906, the latest year for 
which full details are available, amounted to $15,394,099, in a total 
import into Egypt in that year of $30,264,245, leaving a balance of 
nearly 50 per cent to be supplied by Austria, France, Germany, Italy, 
etc., the share of the United States therein amounting to. only $10,053, 
our exports thither for that year. 

Special Agent Clark calls attention to the fact that an excise tax of 
8 per cent is imposed on the production of all cotton mills in Egypt. 
This will prevent any local manufactures of moment, so that Ameri- 
can producers of textile fabrics, in any efforts they may make for 
securing trade in Egypt, can rely upon having to compete there with 
foreign factors only, the same competition which they have to meet 
in all other markets. 



TURKISH EMPIRE 



11 



GENERAL TRADE REVIEW. 

EUROPEAN MONOPOLY OF THE MARKET. 

COMMERCIAL AWAKENING AMERICAN INFLUENCE NOW BEING FELT 

BUSINESS METHODS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

Turkey is a country to which the United States sells few goods. 
American manufacturers are gradually beginning to realize, however, 
that this market is worth cultivating, and American sales are increas- 
ing. Though a backward country, Turkey is now feeling the impetus 
of modern progress, and trade in both exports and imports is growing. 
Concessions for railways, the electric trolley line at Damascus, two 
automobiles in Constantinople, and one telephone line authorized 
are signs of commercial and industrial advancement. 

The latest Turkish statistics are for the year ended March 13, 1906, 
and show imports of $138,010,491 and exports of $86,558,429, or a 
total trade of $224,568,920. In passing through the Turkish customs 
many articles are said to be undervalued, and the actual trade of the 
country therefore is probably over $250,000,000. 

Turkey's universal provider is Great Britain, which monopolizes 
between a quarter and a third of the total trade. Another third is 
controlled by Austria, France, and Italy, while the remainder is more 
widely distributed. 

DISCREPANCIES IN STATISTICS COUNTRIES SHOWING GAINS. 

Turkish statistics, while they can not be regarded as accurate, are 
valuable as showing the general trend of the trade. The inaccuracy 
is greater in the case of the United States than in that of any other 
nation, and part of the trade, especially export trade, credited to Great 
Britain, Austria, France, Italy, and Germany is really American 
trade. This is mainly due to the fact that no American ships appear 
in Turkish waters, and the customs officers at many places have a habit 
of crediting exports to the flag that carries them. In regard to im- 
ports, there is not such a large discrepancy in this respect, but goods 
are often credited to the port of transshipment. There are also fac- 
tors involved that even a careful customs service could not accurately 
ascertain. It is a fact that American goods are shipped into Turkey 
from the stock at the head agency in some other country. German 
goods are often shipped from Antwerp, Rotterdam, Trieste, etc., and 
in many cases credited to the country whence shipped. In fact, it 
would be better in this case to lump the figures for Germany, Austria, 
and Belgium. The figures for the United States, as stated, are the 
ones that are virtually wrong. Taking the official American figures 
and considering the amount that goes indirect, the trade of the 
United States with Turkey is not far from $15,000,000, of which 
$3,000,000 is exports to Turkey and $12,000,000 imports from Turkey. 

13 



14 



COTTON TEXTILE TKADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 



While the Turkish statistics are not accurate, they seem nevertheless 
to show very well the trend of the trade with the continental countries. 

DISTRIBUTION OF IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 

The latest figures showing the value of the trade of Turkey with 
various countries and the percentages showing their relative standing 
with corresponding percentages in 1901, follow : 



Country. 



United States 

United Kingdom. 

Austria 

France 

Italy 

Germany 

Russia 



Imports. 



1906. 



Value. 



$1, 265, 271 
48, 363, 926 
28,671,029 
11,742,884 
10, 763, 279 
5,831,293 
8, 008, 700 



Belgium 4, 339, 040 



Bulgaria 

Roumania 

Holland... 

Greece 

Egypt 

Persia 

All others . 



2, 055, 192 
3,499,322 
2, 628, 967 
2, 468, 054 
4, 075, 324 
3, 228, 502 
1,069,708 



Total 138, 010, 491 



Percent- 
age. 



0.92 
35.05 
20.77 
8.77 
7.76 
4.23 
5.80 
3.14 
1.48 
2.53 
1.91 
1.79 
2.95 
2.32 
.58 



100. 00 



1901, per- 
centage. 



0.26 

34.88 

17.48 

11.60 

5.74 

4.11 

8.76 

2.72 

3.50 

2.19 

1.24 

' .92 

2.69 

3.17 

.74 



Exports. 



1906. 



Value. 



$2, 165, 323 
27, 852, 357 
9, 404, 135 
21, 167, 549 
4, 382, 185 
5,401,875 
2, 612, 916 
2, 146, 838 
3, 326, 307 
1, 759, 995 
2,556,591 
2, 391, 772 



288, 132 
1, 102, 454 



100.00 



86, 558, 429 



Percent- 
age. 



2.50 

32.18 

10.88 

24.45 

5.06 

6.24 

3.01 

2.47 

3.84 

2.03 

2.96 

2.76 



1901, per- 
centage. 



2.76 
38.07 

7.77 
29.79 

3.34 



18 
12 
29 
65 
36 
1.97 
1.96 



.33 
1.29 



100. 00 



.10 
.64 



100. 00 



England's trade, while steadily increasing, has not in the last five 
years kept pace with the general trade increase of the country, and 
her proportionate share, owing to intense continental competition, 
has declined. The nations making the most substantial gains are 
Italy, Austria, and Germany, and to these might be added Belgium 
and the United States. The trade of both Russia and France has 
declined. All other countries are of minor importance, but in general 
their trade with Turkey has increased. 

AMERICAN TRADE AND INFLUENCE. 

It is probable that American trade in the last ten years has actually 
shown the largest proportionate increase, but much of this is indi- 
rect — silk to France, tobacco to Germany, etc. Germany, Italy, and 
Belgium impress one as being the countries most intensely striving 
for control of commercial affairs in this section. Their merchants 
use every means to enlarge their foothold, and their representatives 
are ever striving to gain new concessions, as every new concession 
means more work for the factories of their respective countries. So 
far American capitalists have held aloof from Turkey and have not 
taken any part in the contention for concessions. Our goods have 
made little impression on the trade in general. 

In one respect American influence is beginning to be quietly per- 
ceptible in Turkey, and that is through the American schools that 
have been established. At Beirut, Smyrna, Constantinople, and at 
other points American schools with American teachers are exercising 
a powerful influence, and this influence in time will be quite a factor 
in securing at least a favorable consideration of American manufac- 
tured goods. 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE TN TURKISH EMPIRE. 



15 



American export trade to Turkey, especially to Smyrna, has been 
stimulated by the better steamship facilities and is steadily if not 
rapidly increasing in volume. This is much more encouraging than 
the larger increase of exports to the United States, for the United 
States can always buy, but to sell takes longer preparation and 
requires more effort. If there were an even balance of trade, the 
steamship facilities would be greatly increased. While Great Britain 
sells to Turkey far more than it buys therefrom, the United States 
buys from Turkey far more than it sells in return. Next to Great 
Britain and France the largest proportion of Turkish products 
eventually find their market in the United States. We buy wool 
from Bagdad, Aleppo, and Damascus; licorice root from Alexan- 
dretta ; tobacco from Saloniki and Samsoun ; carpets from Constanti- 
nople; olive oil from Beirut; dates from Bussorah; and figs, raisins, 
opium, tobacco, and licorice root from Smyrna. 

PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF TRADE. 

To get a comprehensive idea of a country's trade it is necessary to 
know the proportion of the principal articles bought and sold. The 
Turkish figures for such articles of foreign trade are as follows : 



IMPORTS. 



Cotton piece goods $31, 270, 003 

Other textiles 17, 367, 241 

Cotton yarn and thread 8, 032, 827 

Sugar 11, 355, 863 



Flour- 
Rice 

Petroleum 

Coffee 

Iron and ironware 

Rugs and carpets 

Lumber 

Medicines and drugs. 



4, 991, 746 
4, 739, 869 
4, 563, 231 
4, 164, 910 
3, 732, 922 
2, 540, 308 
1, 709, 039 
1, 572, 978 



Sole leather $1, 504, 565 



Wheat. 

Skins and hides-. 

Alcohol 

Fezzes and hats_. 
Sheep and goats. 

Millet seed 

Castor oil 

Coal 

Morocco leather- 
Paints and colors. 



1, 417, 214 
1, 414, 750 
1, 221, 947 
1, 209, 459 
1, 178, 949 
1, 089, 186 
1, 064, 510 
1, 051, 170 
996, 278 
905, 300 



EXPORTS. 



Raisins :_ $10, 361, 257 



Raw silk. 

Cocoons 

Mohair, wool, and fleece. 

Figs 

Barley 

Skins and hides 

Opium 

Valonia 

Ores 

Beans and peas 

Cotton 



7, 976, 320 
4, 866, 366 
6, 223, 956 
3, 970, 027 
3, 301, 085 
3, 201, 640 
3, 195, 182 
2, 750, 988 
2, 437, 962 
2, 547, 698 
2, 255, 332 



Rugs and carpets $2, 402, 620 

Eggs 2, 202, 356 

Olive oil 1, 851, 530 

Wheat 1, 647, 916 

Fruit 1, 603, 008 

Dates 1, 523, 578 

Sesamum seed 1, 382, 519 

Nuts 1, 291, 483 

Coal 952, 756 

Oats 875, 551 

Oranges, citrons, and lemons. 854, 734 



Other imports in order of value are corn, bottles and glassware, 
matches, nails, wall paper, machinery, copper, cigarette paper, raw 
silk, sesamum-seed oil, tea, earthenware, tools and implements, and 
rubber overshoes. Other exports in order of value are licorice root, 
millet seed, coffee, corn, horses and mules, seeds (ordinary), fish, oxen, 
cows and buffaloes, and olives. The preponderance of the imports of 
cotton manufactures is very noticeable, and in fact in the case of 
almost every neutral or nonmanuf acturing country cotton goods hold 
first place in the imports. 



16 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 



DISTRIBUTION OF COMMERCE. 



The diagrams given herewith show that Constantinople is the great 
importing metropolis for Turkey, while Smyrna occupies a similar 




Diagram showing distribution of import trade. 




Diagram showing distribution of export trade. 

position relative to exports. Other main importing towns are shown 
to be Smyrna, Beirut, Saloniki, Alexandretta, Bagdad, and Trebizond, 
while additional main export centers are the dependency ports, and 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIEE. 17 

Saloniki, Beirut, Constantinople. Trebizond, Alexandretta, Bagdad, 
and Adrianople. Egypt and Bulgaria are both nominally depend- 
encies of Turkey, but the " dependency " ports included refer only 
to those of Bulgaria. 

Smyrna and Constantinople are the two ports having the best 
steamship connections, and the great bulk of American trade is with 
Smyrna, which is at present the second city in Turkey. When con- 
nected by rail with the interior of the country, Smyrna will, by virtue 
of its location, eclipse Constantinople in imports as well as exports. 

BUSINESS METHODS. 

At Constantinople the trade is largely handled by Armenians, at 
Smyrna by Greeks, and at Beirut by native Syrians. Nearly all of 
these understand French, while English is unknown except by a com- 
paratively limited number. More of the Smyrna merchants seem to 
have a knowledge of English than is the case at any other point, but 
even to them French is more familiar. For Turkey, therefore, cata- 
logues should be in French, and in most cases correspondence, cables, 
etc., should be in the same language. Prices for Turkey should be 
quoted in English pounds sterling and pence or in French francs. 
Though French is spoken and English little understood, the largest 
portion of the trade is with England, and English quotations are 
understood direct, while American money is only understood rela- 
tively, if at all. Owing to variation in value and name at various 
points quotations in Turkish money are not advisable. 

Quotations from America are sometimes f. o. b. factory, say St. 
Louis or Cincinnati. Such quotations nine times out of ten are imme- 
diately thrown into the wastebasket. Quotations f. o. b. New York 
are also disliked. Quotations should be f. o. b. Smyrna or other port 
of destination. Many continental firms get a start here by quoting 
" franco domicile " — that is, landed at the importer's door — which 
quotations always receive attention. In such cases the manufacturer 
usually has an agent to look after the landing, customs, and haul- 
ing, but in some cases new exporters get started by quoting franco 
domicile and then making an allowance to cover these items. Quot- 
ing franco domicile or even f. o. b. Smyrna is more troublesome to 
the exporter than quoting f . o. b. American factory, but it saves trou- 
ble to the importer, who is the one to please. 

CASH AND CREDIT. 

" Cash against documents " is unpopular, and " cash before ship- 
ment " is usually laughed at. Three months might be considered the 
average Turkish credit, but of course this varies greatly. For in- 
stance, the bulk of the yarn trade is a cash business, also i; Cabots," 
while the cotton-print trade demands at least three months and the 
cotton-flannel trade six months. Terms also vary at each import 
center. As a rule, the English give the shortest and the Germans 
and Italians the longest time. Whether due to this or other causes, 
the trade of the latter two countries is increasing at the expense of 
the former. Instead of " cash against documents " an equally safe 
and much more satisfactory business can be done by quoting " cash 
on arrival of goods." Drafts with bill of lading attached should be 
consigned to the Imperial Ottoman Bank or the Credit Lyonnais, to 
be collected on arrival of goods. Importers prefer to pay the interest 

27703—08 2 



18 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 

on draft rather than to pay before goods arrive. I have been in- 
formed of several instances where by refusing this simple accom- 
modation American houses have lost the business. Three months' 
time is demanded in many lines, and where the standing of the im- 
porter warrants it should be freely given. Longer than this is rarely, 
if ever, advisable in Turkey, though some exporters on certain lines 
give very long time — up to nine months or over. Cash — that is, 
" cash on arrival of goods " — is usually the more advisable method, 
but where cash is demanded a discount, say of 3 per cent, should 
always be made for payment. 

VALUE OF LOCAL AGENTS— AN AMERICAN BANK NEEDED. 

Business can be built up much quicker through local agents than 
by long-range work. In choosing local agents, however, much care 
has to be exercised, for it is usually to the agent's interest in case 
of claims arising to side with the local merchant rather than with 
the foreign exporter, for the agent can find another foreign exporter 
much more easily than another home client. Furthermore, banks in 
Turkey, as shown in the case of bank losses in some recent Smyrna 
failures, do not usually know the real financial position of the mer- 
chants, and their reports therefore can not always be regarded as 
correct. There are, however, many reliable native firms which handle 
large commission accounts. Wherever possible American agents are 
the best, especially agents who have been established some time and 
are in touch with local conditions. 

The direct shipping problem in connection with American trade 
seems to be gradually solving itself and rates are decreasing, but 
direct banking is still needed, and an American bank in Turkey 
would do much to facilitate and increase American business with 
that country. 



IMPORTANCE OF COTTON TEXTILE TRADE. 
OPPORTUNITIES FOR INCREASED SALES OF AMERICAN PRODUCTS. 

Turkey is a nonmanufacturing country, and the bulk of the cloth- 
ing for its people is supplied by more progressive nations. The im- 
portance of this trade is shown by the fact that, after India and 
China, it is the largest consumer of Great Britain's immense cloth 
production and is also one of her best yarn customers. The market 
is large and worth cultivating, and the American cotton manufac- 
turer should strive more strenuously for his share of it. At present 
American trade papers, in commenting on the cotton cloth export 
trade, mention the takings of China, South America, and the Red 
Sea ports, but that is all. By a little work Turkey could be added 
to this list, and there is a much larger field here than there will ever 
be at Red Sea ports. The present time of prosperity and of great 
demand for cloth at home is the time that American cloth salesmen 
should be developing trade in Turkey, so that the mills may run full 
time should the home demand slacken. The actual work of building 
up a trade here can only be done by the manufacturers and commis- 
sion men sending out salesmen, or else forming a connection with 
local houses and sending them samples and prices. With the recent 
improvements in the time of steamship connections and lowered 
transportation rates, the market is as accessible to the United States 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 



19 



as to Europe, and the effect of these on the trade at Smyrna is already 
marked. 

The chief drawback to the extending of our textile trade with 
Turkey is that smaller orders have to be taken than is the case 
with China. Local requirements as to making up, marking, and 
packing have to be catered to, and in most cases the time for making 
payments has to be extended. Withal it is, after China and South 
America, the field most worthy the attention of American manu- 
facturers as likely to jdeld good results. India, of course, 
is the biggest field, but the English are much more strongly in- 
trenched there than they are in Turkey, and India is not so accessi- 
ble from the United States. 

VARIETY AND VALUE OF IMPORTS. 

The following are the latest Turkish figures for the cotton goods 
imported into Turkey, being for the year ended March 13, 1906: 



Description. 



Prints and piques 

Cabots 

White shirtings 

Muslins 

Underwear 

Covers, bed and table 

Linings 

Dimities 

Laces 

Handkerchiefs 

Drills 

Cotton velvets 



Value. 



$10, 107, 080 

7, 046, 493 

4, 598, 244 

2, 036, 094 

1, 274, 988 

833, 349 

753, 452 

732, 800 

661 496 

626, 586 

323, 200 

315, 090 



Description. 



Value. 



Braids j $310, 614 

Ginghams, imitations of native cloths, j 307, 368 

Calicoes and remnants i 304, 920 

Canvas 246, 509 

Bathing waist cloths and towels j 235, 590 

Waist sashes 179, 434 

Ribbons 134, 428 

Damasks 130,098 

Sail cloth 96, 170 

Imitations of native " dima" 16, 000 

Total 31, 270, 003 



Great Britain's predominance in this line is shown in the follow- 
ing figures, although Italy, Austria, and Germany are yearly in- 
creasing their sales and giving England keener competition: 



Country. 



Great Britain 

Daly 

Austria 

Germany 

France 



Value. 



$21,662,929 
3,146.891 
2, 645, 725 
1, 094, 993 
1,025,768 



Country. 



Belgium . . . 
Holland ... 
All others . 

Total 



Value. 



.$416, 694 
321,872 
955,131 



31,270,003 



Other textiles of various kinds imported into Turkey are shown by 
the following figures for the year ended March 13, 1906: 



Description. 



Value. 



Woolen dress materials $3, 940. 682 

Cashmeres 2, 815, 208 

Cotton and linen cloths I 1, 954, 480 

Sacking j 1, 696, 548 

Silk goods 1, 335, 800 

Broadcloths | 1, 326, 752 

Ready-made clothing 980, 079 

Aba cloth and serges 897, 556 



Description. 


Value. 


Hosierv 


$829, 625 


Bundle covers 


657. 623 


Flannels 


488. 026 


Bazin cloths 


272, 932 


Shawls 


171,930 






Total 


17, 367, 241 







This gives a total value of textile goods of all kinds imported into 
Turkey of $48,637,244. In the last table part of the cashmeres is 
cotton cashmere and a good part of the flannels is cotton flannel. 
Cotton goods form a part of several of the other items, but not being 
kept separate in the import list there is no way of ascertaining the 



20 COTTON TEXTILE TEADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 

proportion. Of the total, however, it would seem that the real 
amount of cotton goods imported into Turkey is over $35,000,000 a 
year, and a market of this size is worthy of study. 

The bulk of the " prints and piques " in the cotton-goods list is 
the ordinary shirting print, 31-32 inches wide. The well-known 
mill brand " Cabot " in Turkey includes all sheetings, because of 
this one brand having a wide reputation and the brand, as well as 
the cloth, being imitated by the Italians and Austrians. In the 
import list of the Turkish Government the term " Cabot " is used 
in a still wider sense, including not only gray sheetings but all 
similar gray goods, especially gray shirtings and T cloths. 

SOURCES OF SUPPLY. 

The main cotton piece goods imported into Turkey are prints, T 
cloths, gray shirtings, white shirtings, gray sheetings, muslins (in- 
cluding tanjibs), linings, dimities, and cotton flannels. Of the 
prints 70 per cent come from Manchester, 15 per cent from Italy, 
and the remainder from Austria, Germany, France, and Belgium. 
The T-cloth trade is a monopoly of Great Britain, and the great bulk 
of the gray shirtings also comes from Great Britain. The gray 
sheetings are mainly supplied by Italy, with a less amount from 
Austria and still smaller amounts from Holland and the United 
States. The muslins imported come mainly from Great Britain, 
as do practically all the tanjibs. Of the cotton linings of various 
kinds Great Britain furnishes about 40 per cent, Austria 25 per cent, 
Italy 15 per cent, and Germany 10 per cent. Two-thirds of the 
dimities come from Great Britain and 15 per cent from Italy. Cot- 
ton flannels and flannelets come mainly from Italy, with lesser quan- 
tities from Germany, England, and Austria. Drills come from Great 
Britain and Italy, and cotton velvets from Austria, Great Britain, 
and Germany. 

Bed and table covers come from Austria, England, and Germany, 
as do also laces; underwear from Austria, Italy, and Germany; ho- 
siery from Austria, with smaller quantities from Germany and Eng- 
land; handkerchiefs from England and Austria; and ready-made 
clothing mainly from Austria, with smaller amounts from Germany 
and England. Broadcloth is also mainly supplied by Austria. 
Woolen dress materials come from Austria and Italy, with some from 
Germany, while silk goods come from Italy and Austria, with some 
from England and Germany. Cashmeres come from Austria and 
England, and the cotton and linen cloths mainly from England. 
Bundle covers come from England and Austria, the varicolored waist 
sashes mainly from Austria, and bathing towels from England. 
Burlap is supplied by India and England. 

The only goods supplied by the United States are sheetings, some 
drills (mainly dyed), and small amounts of dimity, duck, handker- 
chiefs, underwear, and hollands. 

COTTON YARN AND THREADS. 

In cotton yarn imported into Turkey Great Britain does not have 
as large a monopoly as in cloth; in fact, Italy and Austria are 
working hard to control the market. In the tables India is included 
with Great Britain, so that the actual figures for Great Britain 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 



21 



should be reduced by the amount of India's yarn contribution, which 
averages about $500,000 a year. The latest Turkish figures for the 
yarn imports, for the year ended March 13, 1906, are as follows : 



Country. 



Great Britain 

Italy 

Austria 

Germany 

Holland 

France 



Pounds. 

19,205,528 

7, 233, 881 

4,741,483 

334,177 

145,898 

161,126 


Value. 


$3, 908, 245 

1,309,443 

943, 966 

75, 527 

34, 893 

32, 642 



Country. 



Pounds. 



Belgium I 147, 337 

Russia ; 27,854 

United States 17,641 

All others 575, 343 

Total i 32, 590, 268 



Value. 



130, 092 
3,651 
3,340 

115, 007 



6, 456, 806 



The cotton thread used in Turkey is mainly supplied by Great 
Britain, with smaller quantities from Italy and Austria. The 
United States does not seem to compete at all. The Turkish figures 
for cotton thread, reel and spool, imported into Turkey, are as fol- 
lows: 



Country. 



Great Britain 

Italy 

Austria 

Holland 

Germany . . . 

Belgium 

France 

All others... 

Total.. 



Pounds. Bunches. Packets. Value 



579, 228 

093, 971 

359, 721 

5,016 

149, 046 

80, 303 

18, 516 

106. 127 



3, 391, 928 



, 519, 771 
409, 357 
424, 762 
617, 879 
117, 461 
271, 322 
28, 163 
27, 721 



3, 416, 436 



365, 235 

61, 669 

232, 524 

1,850 

22, 138 

7,180 

8,267 

2,110 



700, 973 



$830, 220 
278, 411 
205, 124 
93, 380 
68, 763 
58, 762 
13, 847 
27, 516 



1, 576, 023 



CONDITIONS WHICH HAMPER TRADE EXTENSION. 

Trade in Turkey suffers from several restrictions. In sending 
telegrams, for instance, every sentence has to be studied by the 
censor at Constantinople, and no message is allowed in cipher. Even 
consuls can not use codes except when telegraphing direct to their 
governments or to their embassy at Constantinople. The cost is 
doubled by having to be sent first to Constantinople and then for- 
warded, and of course the normal cost is greatly increased by the 
prohibition of business codes. 

Electricity is regarded with suspicion, and telephones are pro- 
hibited throughout the Ottoman Empire. In this particular they 
are far behind the Chinese, whose leading merchants in the large 
cities are as familiar with the telephone as the merchant in the 
United States, and use it. almost as freely. At Constantinople I was 
informed that the Sultan had just authorized one telephone line, 
and if this is so it will doubtless be followed by others within a short 
time. 

Several Turkish cities have gas works, but Damascus is the first 
city in the Empire to have electric lights. The electric lights and an 
electric street-car system were only started in Damascus in the early 
part of last year, but already Beirut and other towns have obtained 
authorizations for similar projects. 

Owing to delays in mail transmission, and to letters sometimes 
being opened by the native authorities, the main European powers 
now have their own post-offices at all the principal ports, but, with 
the exception of Jerusalem, this system does not extend to the inte- 
rior cities. There is a money- order department connected with 



22 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 

each foreign post-office, and in remitting small sums to Turkish 
ports this will be found the cheapest method. 

In the present decade there have been many signs of improve- 
ment in conditions in Turkey, and, though everything in the East 
moves slowly, there is bound to be a much more rapid progress in 
the future. Even with the present methods the trade of the coun- 
try is steadily increasing and in the export trade the United States 
has more than kept pace with the increase, but still has only a small 
portion of the import trade that should go to it. 

IMPORTANT SUGGESTIONS. 

A parcels-post treaty between Turkey and the United States is 
needed in order to send samples cheaply. This would save the high 
charges that are now made on small packages and would be of ad- 
vantage in opening up many places to American business. 

Above all things, American commercial travelers are needed in 
Turkey. The Italians, the Germans, the Austrians, the Belgians, and 
the English have many such representatives, and in many lines regu- 
lar trips are made at stated intervals, so that they not only start but 
hold their trade. Until Americans apply this system to Turkey they 
can not hope to get the market from other competitors who have men 
on the spot. 

American exporters could increase their sales in Turkey and do a 
more satisfactory business by adapting their goods to local require- 
ments; sending over commercial travelers; using French in corre- 
spondence and catalogues; using metric system in quotations; quot- 
ing in French or English money; quoting c. i. f. Turkish port or 
" franco domicile; " giving thirty to ninety days' credit to firms of 
standing; in " cash " quotations always quoting " cash on arrival of 
goods," and invariably giving some discount for cash; accepting 
small initial orders; accurate adherence to specifications and care in 
packing; promptness in shipping, and by carefully studying before- 
hand what shipping route will be to the interest of customers in re- 
gard to time, cost, and liability to damage by transshipments. 

Tn the case of Turkey, the duty is almost uniformly 11 per cent ad 
valorem; therefore quoting "franco domicile" — that is, "delivery 
free into customer's store " — should be comparatively easy and is 
a very popular method. 



EUROPEAN TURKEY, 

VALUABLE MARKET FOR PIECE GOODS. 

AREA, POPULATION, AND COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE CONSUMPTION 

AND EXPORTS OF NATIVE PRODUCTS. 

Turkey in Europe has gradually been reduced in size until now it 
is only 66,500 square miles in area. The population is about 
6,000,000, of which only about 700,000 are Turks, the remainder 
being composed of Albanians (1,500,000), Greeks (1,300,000), Bul- 
garians, and Wallachians; about 40 per cent only are Mohammedans. 

European Turkey includes the vilayets of Constantinople, Adria- 
nople, Saloniki, Monastir, Kossovo, Skutari, and Janina. The main 
towns are the ports of Constantinople, with about 1,250,000 inhabit- 
ants, Saloniki, with about 100,000, and Adrianople with about 
80,000. 

While Turkey in Europe is smaller, in both area and population, 
than the peninsula of Asia Minor, it probably consumes more goods, 
as it is nearer European markets and better opened up with railways. 
The consumption of cotton piece goods is especially large, for while 
the Bedouins and fellaheens in the country districts of Syria and 
Asia Minor wear a large amount of native- woven goods, the peasants 
in European Turkey find it usually cheaper to buy the foreign cloth. 
There is a large native manufacture of shawls, rugs, and carpets, 
especially for export from Constantinople. 

NATIVE COTTON GROWING. 

Cotton is raised in European Turkey and in Asia Minor, but mostly 
in scattered lots. The section around Adana, Asia Minor, raises the 
largest quantity, and a railroad built from the port of Mersina to 
tap this section has stimulated its cultivation. There is also good 
cotton-raising land in the section back of Snryrna, and the cotton of 
that section is mostly ginned at Aidin, near Smyrna, before ship- 
ment. Syria does not raise cotton in commercial quantities. Prac- 
tically all the Turkish cotton exported is shipped from either Mersina 
or Smyrna. 

Back in the sixties, when the cultivation of cotton all over the 
world was stimulated by the scarcity and high price of the American 
article, there was considerable cotton raised in Asiatic Turkey, but 
with the drop in value that afterwards ensued the cultivators near 
the coast found more money in other crops, grapes, olives, figs, etc., 
so that little cotton was planted. With the present continued high 
price of cotton its cultivation is once more expanding. There is a 
good deal of land in Asia Minor that would be suitable for cotton, 
but a good part is without railroad facilities. The most of the cot- 
ton grown is of the local staple, as it has been found that the Amer- 
ican staple deteriorates unless fresh seed is imported each year, and 
this is too expensive. The local cotton is clean, and of fairly good 
staple. It runs some || to |f inch in length, but is not regular, and 
is harsher than the American. The cotton-growing season is the same 
as that in the United States. 

23 



24 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 

COTTON IMPORTS AND MANUFACTURES. 

Turkey imports a trifle of cotton — some 1,288,594 pounds, of a 
value of $89,000 in 1906 — but has few factories, and exports more 
than it imports. According to the figures of the Turkish Govern- 
ment, its exports of c'otton in 1906 amounted to 23 w 93 1,332 pounds, 
say 54,000 bales of 440 pounds each, of a value of $2,255,332. Aus- 
tria and France are listed as taking the bulk of this cotton, while 
Italy, Greece, Germany, and Great Britain took smaller amounts. 

The manufacture of cotton goods by hand work is a larger industry 
in Turkey than the manufacture by machinery, but there are some 
small cotton mills. There is a small yarn mill at Constantinople, 
and another at Saloniki, another near Smyrna, and a weave mill 
being built on the island of Mitylene. The industry tends to concen- 
trate, however, in the main cotton-growing section around Adana, 
and there are several small mills now located there. There is also 
a mill near Tarsus, which is not far from the port of Mersina, and 
the machinery of the Egyptian mill that failed at Cairo is to be 
transferred and erected at this place. There are no cotton mills in 
Syria, but Damascus, Horns, and Hamah are all hand-loom centers. 

MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 

The Turkish money unit is the piaster, which is worth 4.4 cents; 
40 para equal 1 piaster, and 100 piasters equal 1 Turkish pound, 
which is therefore worth $4.40 gold. 

The metric system was decreed obligatory in Turkey in January, 
1892, but it has never been enforced. The cloth measure is the pic 
of about 27 inches. The pic in some places is called a dra, and in 
others endaze. In measuring land a lineal measure of 30 inches is 
used, called an arshin, and a superficial measure of 40 square paces, 
called a donum. The usual measure of weight is the oke, of 2.83 
pounds, and the cantar or kintal of 125 pounds avoirdupois. The 
alrhud equals 1.151 imperial gallons, and the kileh equals 0.912 impe- 
rial bushel. These weights and measures, however, are varied at 
various places, so there is no really uniform system, as special weights 
and measures are used for several products. Among the importers 
the metric system is largely used, and for most articles quotations 
should be in figures of that system. 



CONSTANTINOPLE. 
AN IMPORTANT COTTON GOODS MART CONTROLLED BY EUROPEANS. 

Constantinople from the beginning of modern civilization has been 
considered one of the most important strategic points of Europe. 
It connects or rather divides the East from the West. If a through 
railway line is built from London to Calcutta, Constantinople will 
be on the main line. The railroad that will probably be built in the 
next few years through Asia Minor and the interior to Bagdad will 
probat>fy give Smyrna an important lead over Constantinople, for, 
though both places will be starting points, goods from Europe can 
be landed at Smyrna for shipment cheaper and quicker than they 
could be brought to Constantinople. 

Constantinople has very good steamship facilities, though there is 
no direct line between the port and New York, as there is between 
Smyrna and New York, and all goods have to bo transshipped at 



COTTON TEXTILE TEADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 25 

least once at English, German, French, Italian, or Austrian ports 
before reaching Constantinople. The best route at present is by the 
North German Lloyd, which transfers at Naples to the Deutsche 
Mittelmeer Levant Line and delivers goods from New York in 
twenty- two days. This line has sailings from New York every Sat- 
urday, and time enough is allowed at Naples for transshipment, so 
that cargo does not have to lie over for another steamer, as is often 
the case with the connections of some other lines. England has four 
lines to Constantinople, Germany three, France three, Austria one, 
and Italy one. When time is" a consideration, German as well as 
Austrian goods sometimes come by rail. 

FREIGHT RATES AND BANKING FACILITIES. 

The through rate on cotton piece goods from New York varies 
from 20 to 24 shillings ($4,866 to $5.84) per ton, weight or measure- 
ment. From Liverpool it is 20 shillings per ton measurement, and 
30 shillings ($7.30) per ton weight, so that New York has as good 
freight rate as Liverpool; but Liverpool goods can be counted upon 
to arrive on time. 

The banking facilities at Constantinople are good, as regards Euro- 
pean business, though interest rates are very high, but as regards 
American business an American branch bank is badly needed. Banks 
in New York, under the present connections, or lack of connections, 
are not eager for paper on Turkish banks, and sometimes will only 
handle such paper in large quantities if the export house gives them 
other paper for which there is a demand, such as that on South Africa, 
etc. This system is hard on the small exporter and would be obviated 
if there were a branch here of some American bank. The English have 
long recognized the great value of bankers and merchants working 
hand in hand, and their banks are dotted over the face of the earth. 
The Germans are now doing likewise ; they have established a bank at 
Constantinople, and, it is reported, will establish a chain of German 
banks throughout the Levant. The Austrians also have a bank 
there, and the Italians are now following suit, having just established 
the bank of the Societe Commerciale d' Orient. 

The great advantage of a country having its own banks in foreign 
countries is not simply the facility of getting paper handled, though 
that is very important, but bankers are brought in touch with all the 
commercial factors of the place, and are able to advise their country- 
men intelligently on the degree of credit that can be safely extended, 
and also to give information as to the needs and requirements of the 
people. The largest banks in Constantinople are the Imperial Otto- 
man Bank, and the Credit Lyonnais, of Lyon. The capital of each is 
given as $48,665,000, and these are the two banks that handle Ameri- 
can business. Other banks are the Deutsche Orient Bank, the Wiener 
Bank-Verein, the Societe Commerciale d' Orient, and the Banque 
d'Athenes. Also there are local banks, the Banque de Metelin, and 
the Banque de Salonique. 

LARGE COTTON GOODS TRADE BRITISH MONOPOLY. 

The trade of Constantinople in cotton piece goods and in cotton 
yarn is very large and is supplied by England, and handled largely by 
Armenian merchants. The bazaars at Constantinople are the largest 
in the Levant, and consist of streets roofed over, with stalls on either 



26 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 

side. There are several of these bazaars, but the cloth sales are 
mainly in what is usually called the Big Bazaar. 

The main goods imported into Constantinople are prints, gray 
shirtings, bleached goods, muslins, T cloths, cashmeres, flannelets, vel- 
vets, linings, and handkerchiefs. There is also a large import of cot- 
ton and linen cloths for various purposes, bed and table covers, ready- 
made clothing, and underclothing. Cotton manufactures far exceed 
any other item imported at Constantinople, averaging fully 40 per 
cent of the total imports. These goods are used not only by the 
1,250,000 inhabitants of this place, but some are exported to Asia 
Minor and the interior, and a larger portion shipped out to the sur- 
rounding section as far as the interior of Macedonia and the Balkan 
States. 

England has so much the bulk of the cotton piece goods trade at 
Constantinople that, in the absence of accurate statistics, any increase 
or diminution of the trade, unless very important, is hard to de- 
termine. From what is said by importers and retail merchants, in 
regard to cheaper articles from European competitors gradually tak- 
ing the place of the British-made cloths in certain lines, it would seem 
that the British cotton manufacturers are hardly holding their own. 
This is not true of their standard cloths, such as the fine white shirt- 
ings, T cloths, and other goods, on which they have a monopoly, but 
is on the trade in general and especially in regard to printed goods. 

ITALY AND AUSTRIA STRONG COMPETITORS. 

England's chief competitor is Italy, which is especially strong on 
cheap prints, cotton flannels, flannelets, and barchent. In fact, on 
printed napped goods Italy controls the Turkish market. Italy also 
leads in some other lines, especially in the two diverse lines of sheet- 
ings and mercerized satins. The competition of the Italians here is 
much aided by the nearness of the market, giving them quick de- 
livery, by cheap freights, and by their willingness to cater to the de- 
mands of the market, accept small initial orders, and give long time 
or a good discount for cash. 

Nearness also makes Austria a strong competitor in European Tur- 
key, and that country ships large quantities of prints, sheetings, lin- 
ings, cotton velvets, braid, bed and table covers, lace, handkerchiefs, 
and underwear, the bulk of the hosiery and ready-made clothing, and 
other articles, such as broadcloth and woolen material. Austria also 
sells large quantities of the cloth called "Vichy." The Austrians are 
doing an increasing business, but not to the extent of the Italians, one 
reason being that the mills of northern Austria have to pay a much 
higher charge for transport by land and sea, and owing to an increase 
in freight rates in the latter part of 1906 the northern Austrian mills 
have had to loosen their hold on this market and seek an outlet nearer 
home. 

Germany, France, and Belgium compete in smaller degree, Germany 
shipping mostly prints, underwear, bed covers, lace, cotton velvets 
and cashmeres, woolen material, hosiery, and ready-made clothing, 
while France ships prints of various Kinds, especially the higher 
grades, underwear, linings, lace, ribbons, and handkerchiefs. 

There are few textiles of either cotton or wool from the United 
States; in fact, none were to be found in the bazaars. 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 27 

SALONIKI. 
AN IMPORTANT COMMERCIAL PORT LOCAL AND INTERIOR TRADE. 

Saloniki is the import center for the western part of European Tur- 
key, especially Macedonia and Albania, and also ships goods up to the 
borders of Servia and Roumania. Railroads built within the last few 
years to Monastir and to the extreme northern border have done 
much to open the country to European trade. In some cases this has 
led to goods being ordered direct for interior points, but the bulk of 
the trade is handled through the importing merchants "at Saloniki. 
European manufacturers have found it better to give the large im- 
porters an exclusive agency rather than to try to keep up with numer- 
ous smaller importers in the interior. As at Constantinople, there 
are many different races and nationalities at Saloniki, and their re- 
quirements and occupations are diverse. The import trade at this 
place is largely handled by Spanish Jews, who are a part of the de- 
scendants of the Jews that were driven out of Spain by Ferdinand and 
Isabella, and it is said that among themselves they write Spanish in 
Jewish characters. There are also numerous Greeks in business here, 
but for the most part their films are small. There are also several 
agencies of European firms. The population of the vilayet of 
Saloniki is about 1,150,000 people, of which Saloniki itself has some 
100,000. 

The commerce here depends largely on the political situation, on 
the results of the crops, and on the prices obtainable for the country 
manufactures, such as carpets, table covers, etc. In regard to the 
total imports here, Austria leads, followed by England, Germany, and 
Italy. Italy sells mostly sheetings, called Cabots, from their imita- 
tion of this American brand, and printed flannelets. They also sell 
large quantities of pearl and glass buttons, such as are used on the 
country clothes. On account of the higher home freight rates some 
Austrian firms have dropped out, but they still have the lead, supply- 
ing mostly cheap prints, sheetings, and knit goods. The main con- 
sideration at Saloniki is cheapness, quality being a secondary con- 
sideration. 

NATIVE HAND MANUFACTURE CREDITS. 

In European Turkey, as a rule, the native finds it cheaper to buy 
foreign goods than to manufacture for himself: Owing, however, to 
the high prices that have prevailed for the past year, the native hand 
manufacture, both here and in other parts of European Turkey, has 
been stimulated to an enlarged production which finds ready sale with 
the country people. There are some 4,000 to 5,000 bales of cotton 
raised annually in this vilayet, of which part is locally manufactured 
and part exported, mostly to Austria. 

On imported cotton goods the rule here is six months credit, or 6 
per cent discount for cash, but this varies. This credit is readily 
given by the Italians and Austrians, but the other countries only do 
so when they find they can not get the business otherwise. As long 
time is not given on cotton yarn as on cloth; in fact, it is more a cash 
business, but usually a discount is given for cash. The yarn comes 
from Italy and England, with some from Austria, mostly 6s to 12s 
in the gray, 6s, 8s, and 10s colored, and a smaller amount of higher 
numbers up to 30s. Austria furnishes a certain amount of mercerized 
yarn, mostly 14s. 



ASIA MINOR, 

OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT. 

AREA, POPULATION, AND RAILROADS A MARKET WORTHY OF CLOSE 

STUDY BY AMERICAN EXPORTERS. 

Asia Minor, the great peninsula of Asia that extends between the 
Mediterranean and Black Seas, consists of the following vilayets: 
Brusa, Smyrna, Kastamuni, Angora, Konieh, Adana, Sivas, Trebi- 
zond, the islands of the Archipelago, and the districts of Ismid and 
Bigha. The main ports are Smyrna and Trebizond. 

The peninsula, containing some 193,000 square miles, and prob- 
ably 9,000,000 inhabitants, out of a probable 25,000,000 in the whole 
of the Ottoman Empire, is the most important section of the Em- 
pire to be studied, but, owing to the lack of transportation facilities 
to the interior, its takings are not yet anything like what they should 
be, and, for the same reason, a large part of the country is unde- 
veloped. It is partly supplied by Smyrna, partly by Constantinople, 
and partly from other sources. 

Railroad facilities are very poor. There is a line from Smyrna to 
Constantinople, but much quicker time is made going around by sea. 
From Constantinople, or rather Skutari, the much discussed Bagdad 
railway runs some 500 miles, but further progress seems ver} T slow. 
There is a line from Smyrna to Kassaba, and another from Mersina 
to Adana which taps the cotton-growing section. All these roads 
are being graduall}" extended, but the work proceeds slowly. 



SMYRNA. 
GROWING TRADE IMPORTANCE SHIPPING AND BANKING FACILITIES. 

Smyrna, next to Constantinople, is the largest city in Turkey, being 
the largest export port and the second largest import port. Its 
trade is growing faster than that of any other city in Turkey, and 
when modern railway systems have brought it into more direct com- 
munication with the interior and with the Persian Gulf, it should 
not only distance Constantinople, but become the shipping center for 
the western Mediterranean that Marseille is for the eastern. Situ- 
ated, with a land-locked harbor, at the end of the Asian Peninsula, 
its strategic importance, in regard to commerce, can be seen from a 
glance at the map and needs no elaboration. Smyrna has better 
steamship facilities than any point in Turkey, and especially has di- 
rect lines to New York, so that the trade of the United States with 
Turkey is growing faster at Smyrna than at any other port. 

The banking facilities of Smyrna are as good as any city in Turkey, 
but the cost or handling paper is unduly high, and an American bank 
would greatly help American business. There are at present six 
banks in Smyrna, as follows: Imperial Ottoman Bank and Bank 

28 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 



29 



of Mitylene (both Turkish), Credit Lyonnais (French), Bank of Sa- 
lonica (Austrian), Bank of Athens and the Orient Bank (both Greek). 
American business mostly passes through the Imperial Ottoman 
Bank and the Credit Lyonnais. 

CHARACTER AND VALUE OF EXPORTS. 

Accurate statistics of the trade of Smyrna are hard to obtain. The 
following list of the main exports was furnished by the manager of 
the Imperial Ottoman Bank as a lijst they had made up after check- 
ing the customs returns, with the aid of the large dealers, and is 
probably the most accurate figures to be obtained: 



Articles. 



Raisins: 

Sultana 

Red 

Black 

Barley 

Opium 

Valonia 

Olive oil 

Wheat 

Cotton/. 

Carpets 

Figs 

Tobacco 

Beans 

Wool 

Sesame 

Licorice 

Goat and sheep skins. 

Cattle hides 

White maize 

Cotton seed 

Nutgall 

Yellow corn 

Chick peas 

Poppyseed 

Gum tragacanth 

Maize 



Total. 



1905. 



Poimds. 



154, 

25, 

43, 

8, 

1, 

154, 

26, 

127, 

23, 



330, 000 
254,000 
493, 000 
816,000 
062,000 
330,000 
657, 000 
350, 000 
851,000 



53, 314, 000 



45, 
4, 

11, 
38, 



280, 000 
913,500 
886, 000 
233, 300 



18. 
18, 



19, 

2, 



112,000 
395,000 
566,000 
367,900 
923,200 



198, 100 
320, 600 



Average 

price per 

pound. 



Cents. 

1.72 

.27 

.69 

25.40 

164. 00 

1.70 

5.80 

1.59 

7.53 



1.57 



1.41 
8.77 
3.03 
1.18 



1.01 

.78 

10.10 

31.09 

1.96 



21.77 
1.07 



Value. 



12,662,000 

673,200 

300, 080 

2, 238, 720 

1,742,000 

2,613,600 

1,546,600 

2,019,600 

1,795,200 

1,320,000 

836,000 



640, 640 
431,200 
360, 360 
451,440 



183, 040 
143, 000 
57, 200 
114, 400 
390, 280 



43, 120 
25,080 



1906. 



Pounds. 



70, 150, 000 
14, 030, 000 
22,448,000 
11,020,000 
1,416,000 

171,166,000 
35,075,000 

127, 350, 000 
20, 203, 200 



61,732,000 

3, 622, 400 

62, 260, 000 

6, 173, 200 

9, 905, 000 

15,848,000 

400, 000 

50, 000 

18,112,000 

18,395,000 

1,132,000 

339, 600 

5, 094, 000 

2, 462, 100 

226, 400 

3, 396, 000 



20,587,160 



Average 

price per 

pound. 



Cents. 

5.50 

.78 

1.57 

25.40 

187. 00 

1.38 

6.37 

1.45 

8.78 



2.09 
23.32 

1.34 
10.66 

3.53 

1.37 



1.09 

.81 

11.90 

31.09 

1.81 

3.00 
24.50 

1.01 



Value. 



$3,850,000 

1,100,000 

352, 000 

2, 798, 400 

2,640,000 

2,361,920 

2, 233, 000 

1,841,400 

1, 774, 080 

1,540,000 

1,393,920 

844, 800 

832,480 

658, 240 

349, 800 

216,920 

211,200 

165, 000 

197, 120 

148, 720 

123, 200 

105, 600 

92,400 

73, 920 

55, 440 

34, 320 



25,993,680 



An accurate list of the imports into Smyrna does not exist, but cot- 
ton piece goods predominate. The Imperial Ottoman Bank, from 
its inquiries among the importers, states the import of cotton goods 
into Smyrna during 1906 to have been 24,038 bales, of a total weight 
of 16,734,972 pounds. Similarly they give the total yarn imports at 
16,928 bales, weighing 6,120,508 pounds. The main cloths imported 
seem to be gray shirting, prints, flannelets, T cloth, white shirting, 
denims, colored drills, and gray sheeting. 

EUROPEAN IMITATIONS OF AMERICAN COTTON GOODS. 

About every trick that can possibly be known to the textile trade 
is in use at Smyrna. American labels and trade-marks are imitated, 
36-inch sheetings are found to be 34; lengths are marked 40 that are 
actually only 36 yards; yard folds are 2 to 4 inches short of the yard; 
inferior sheetings, made of part American and part Indian cotton, are 
openly sold as American cloth; and, in many other ways, the con- 
sumer is persuaded to buy goods at. a slightly lower price, say a 5 per 
cent reduction, when in length, width, weight, construction, or 
quality its value has actually been reduced 10 to 25 per cent. 



30 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 

The worst offenders in this respect will put on any mark required. 
For instance, the Cabot sheetings as they come from the United States 
are 36 inches wide and 40 yards long. The imitators put " 40" at the 
bottom of the bolt, and on being counted there are found to be 40 
folds, as usual, while actual measurement shows that there are only 
36 yards, put up into 40 folds. The Cabot brand has been imitated 
and the distinctive blue labels with white lettering that have latterly 
been used to distinguish the American cloth have also been imitated, 
with a few slight alterations. There is a brand on the market like the 
Cabot, marked Cadot. 

The object of all this imitation is undoubtedly to make the con- 
sumer think he is getting the standard American goods. The large 
importers at Smyrna defend these practices by saying that they are 
well known to the trade; for instance, the fact that Manchester prints 
are put up in "yard" folds does not mean usually that the folds are a 
yard in length, but they may be 1 to 3 inches shorter. The importers 
at Smyrna doubtless know all these details, but the consumer in the 
country does not, and he is the one that suffers. It is such methods, 
added to the cheaper construction of goods and the fact that no Ameri- 
can agent is on the spot to point out to the consumer the frauds, that 
account for the decreasing sale of American sheetings and drills on 
this market. 

COTTON GOODS IMPORTS AND FREIGHT RATES. 

The cotton goods imported into Smyrna annually amount to over 
$5,000,000, and of this the United States, with the present direct steam- 
ship connections, should have a good share. There will have to be 
an American agent on the spot, however, to combat the sharp practices 
of competitors and to show the actual consumer where his interest 
lies. About the only goods supplied from the United States at present 
are gray sheetings, ducks, and gray, blue, and black drills, and these 
are not being pushed actively, hence the sales are declining. 

The freight rate from New York to Smyrna varies, but is now about 
20 shillings ($4,865) per 40 cubic feet, and 5 per cent primage; it 
amounts to about 3 per cent on goods valued at 5 to 10 cents a yard. 
The freight from Liverpool to Smyrna is about 17 shillings ($4.14), so 
there is not over one-half per cent difference. Sometimes, on account 
of competition, the freight is actually cheaper from the United States. 
There are now direct lines to New York, and the time is only nineteen 
days, as compared with an average quick shipment from Liverpool of 
at least twenty- two days; mail, however, gets to Snryrna from Liver- 
pool in eight days. Wherever possible it should be the policy of 
American exporters to patronize the new Greek Moraities Line. The 
reason for this is that this line makes a direct trip from New York to 
Smyrna, with only a stop at Piraeus, and there is therefore a cer- 
tainty that goods will go through without transfer and, in the absence 
of an American line, the building up of this direct Greek line is to the 
interest of American trade. 

CHARACTER OF PIECE GOODS CONSUMED. 

A feature worth noting at Smyrna is the increasing sale of the cloth 
called "barchent." In summer the people use large quantities of the 
regular shirting prints, and in winter large quantities of the printed 
flannelets. Barchent is now taking the place of the regular printed 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 31 

flannelets. It has a hard and, usually, dull finish on one side, and is 
usually napped on the unprinted side. It is in various widths and 
lengths, mostly about 70 centimeters (27.6 inches) wide and 40 to 50 
meters (43.6 to 54.5 yards) in length. The split goods are sold in 55 
to 60 centimeter (21.6 to 23.6 inches) widths. These are woven in 
double widths and split down the center. The 70-centimeter widths 
are selling for 38 to 58 centimes a meter (7.3 to 11.2 cents per 1.09 
yards) c. i. f. Smyrna. 

Cotton flannel, flannelets, and barchents, especially the printed 
napped goods, are controlled by the Italians. The Austrians supply a 
good quantity of Vichy. The trade in Cabots is now divided be- 
tween Italy and Austria, with only a few from the United States. 
Some of the sheetings sold here by Italians and Austrians and labeled 
" Cabots,' ' " American cloth/' etc., are good sheetings, but the ma- 
jority is inferior filled goods made of part American and part Indian 
cotton. They are thus enabled to undersell the genuine article. The 
widths of the Italian are also usually narrower than the American. 

There is not a very large import of drills, and the greater proportion 
of these are colored. The gray drills are mainly Italian and English, 
28-29 inches, 40 yards. Blue drills come largely from Holland. 
Cheap aniline dye is often used. 

In prints there are some from many countries, but the great bulk is 
from Manchester. The German good shirting prints are higher in 
price than the English. There are no split prints on the market, as 
the demand is for a good quality. The average print is about 20 by 20 
construction, and 31-32 inches in width. 

The white shirting and T-cloth trade is a monopoly of the English, 
both in various widths and qualities, but the main white shirting is 34 
inches, 40 yards, with a cambric finish, and the T cloth is in 24-yard 
lengths, and most laregly sold in the 32-inch widths. 

Blankets, wool and cotton, are ordered in the summer for fall de- 
livery, the orders usually being placed in May, June, and July. 
Women's muslin veils were formerly bought already printed from 
Switzerland, but the muslin is now imported from England and hand 
printed at Smyrna. 

CREDITS YARN IMPORTS AND PRICES. 

Cabots at Smyrna are usually a cash business. Prints are usually 
on six months time, or 5 per cent discount. On flannels the Germans 
give five months credit, or 5 per cent discount. The Italians on this 
only give the 5 per cent off for cash in ten days. [A list of the large 
importers of cotton piece goods at Smyrna is on file in the Bureau of 
Manufactures.] 

The majority of the yarn imported is in the gray; the trade divides 
the imports into yarn, twist, and extra hard twist. By yarn is meant 
the soft twist yarn, suitable for filling, and in this Bombay, Austria, 
and Manchester compete. Italy has dropped out on this line. Bom- 
bay supplies over two-thirds of this, mostly low numbers, while Man- 
chester supplies all the specialties. The Bombay numbers are mostly 
8s and 12s, while Manchester runs up to 36s. Of the twist imported, 
usually called water gray, the numbers run from 6s to 32s. The low 
counts are supplied from Italy and the high from England. Nos. 8 to 
12 are now quoted at 9.30 francs ($1.79) per 10-pound bundle c. i. f. 
Smyrna, and 12^ centimes (2.2 cents) added for each number higher. 



32 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 

Each 10-pound bundle contains the same number of hanks as the 
number of the yarn, except for the coarser counts, where the skeins 
are divided into half skeins. The extra hard twist, also referred to as 
water gray, comes mostly from England, with a little from Italy. 
Nos. 12 to 14 are now quoted at 10| francs ($2.02) per 10-pound 
bundle and 12^ centimes (2.2 cents) added for each number higher. 
These prices are unusually high, and are tending to check the import. 
Most of the yarn arrives in 400-pound bales, consisting of forty 10- 
pound paper-covered bundles. 

EUROPEAN TERMS OF SALE ENGLISH MONOPOLY BEING BROKEN. 

In selling yarn, England as a rule demands cash in Manchester, 
India takes cash on delivery, while Italy gives four months, or 3i per 
cent discount for cash. The Italians usually forward bills of lading to 
their local agents, who surrender them to the buyer against three or 
four months drafts on London, and these drafts, being immediately 
sent to the manufacturers, are discounted by them at bank, and their 
money set free again. 

In the spring of 1 907 there were unusually large quantities of Indian 
yarn imported, but this has at present eased off somewhat . This sud- 
den flow was due to the accumulation of Indian yarn at Shanghai and 
Hongkong, and the flood of Indian yarn being suddenly checked in 
that direction, the back rush sent Indian yarn into every section of 
Europe, including Turkey, Greece, Italy, Germany, Belgium, and even 
England itself. The Indian prices were such that they got the market, 
but the yarn did not come up to sample, and the amount now being 
pushed in is much less. 

The German, Austrian, and Italian firms doing business in Turkey 
employ a good many commercial travelers, and these men are usually 
well educated in languages, cater to local requirements, and give 
credit. The English have fewer travelers, and so are not holding their 
own, even though they have the best established business. British 
exports to Turkey are mainly cotton goods from Manchester, but 
in Manchester itself German capital and German management is 
steadily increasing, and in Asia Minor the Germans, Italians, and Aus- 
trians are gradually breaking up England's monopoly on one line after 
another. 



SYRIA. 

IMPORTANCE AS A MARKET. ♦ 

AREA, POPULATION, CITIES, AND DEVELOPMENT CLASSES OF GOODS 

CONSUMED BY THE PEOPLE. 

Syria is one of the main divisions of Asiatic Turkey, and extends 
along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean from the highlands of 
the Taurus in the north to Egypt on the south. It contains about 
115,000 square miles and probably 3,000,000 people. 

Beirut is the gateway for Syria. Alexandretta is also an important 
port. Other ports like Yafa, Haifa, and Tripoli are of less impor- 
tance. The main interior towns are Damascus, Jerusalem, and 
Aleppo. Damascus is the largest city in Syria, and the most impor- 
tant distributing center. Jerusalem is important commercially only 
by reason of the crowds of tourists and pilgrims that swarm there. 
Aleppo is the starting point for most of the interior trade, especially 
of caravans to Bagdad and Persia. 

The central coast portion of Syria embraces ancient Phoenicia, 
and the Syrian merchants of to-day have inherited much of the old 
Phoenician commercial shrewdness. Modern improvements are mak- 
ing more headway in Syria than in any other portion of the Ottoman 
Empire, not excepting European Turkey. Damascus was the first 
city to have electric lights and street cars, and Beirut now has a 
similar concession. The best educational facilities in Turkey are to 
be found in the American school at Beirut, and the people of Syria 
are more wide-awake to the advantages of modern inventions. 

Though three-fourths of Syria is Mohammedan, there are few 
Turks in this section. The inhabitants are usually classed as Syrians, 
Arabs, Turks, Jews, and Europeans. The Syrians are the descend- 
ants of the ancient peoples who spoke Aramaic, a dialect akin to 
Hebrew, but their language now is mainly Arabic. Part of the 
Arabs proper are settled on the land, but the Bedouins are nomadic. 
The Turks consist of peasants who have settled in various parts of 
the country, a few enendi or Turkish gentlemen, and the official 
classes. The Jews are comparatively few in number, and a're settled 
in Palestine. Further immigration of Jews is now forbidden by 
law. The Europeans are few in number, and nearly all reside at 
the ports. There is also a class called Levantines, who are descend- 
ants of Italian, Greek, and other ancestors, but who have entirely 
adopted the manners of the country. They are important com- 
mercially. 

RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT. 

Railroads are being extended more rapidly in Syria than elsewhere. 
The most important is the Government railroad from Damascus to 
Mecca. This road is regarded as a military necessity, but it has been 
exploited as a religious road to the holy city of Mecca, and the faithful 

33 
27703—08 3 



34 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 

all over the Mohammedan world have contributed to its building. 
All Turkish officials were assessed one month's pay as an involuntary 
contribution, and many local taxes have been levied for the purpose. 
The railroad now extends from Haifa, the real starting point, to 
Derat, where a branch reaches it from Damascus, and has thence 
been extended southward to Rabbath Ammon, and past the east 
side of the Dead Sea. It is being built by German engineers and is 
expected to be finished to Mecca by 1910. 

Another railroad, at present more important commercially, is the 
French -line from Beirut to Damascus, which does a considerable 
business. From Reyak Junction on this line another line extends 
northward to Aleppo. Naturally Aleppo should be supplied from 
the near-by port of Alexandretta, but they are separated by a chain 
of steep mountains, and all talk of a connecting railroad line has as 
yet come to naught. Another railroad in Syria is the short line 
from Yafa to Jerusalem. The separate line from Reyak Junction to 
Aleppo is the standard 4 foot 8J inch gage, but the other lines are 
meter gage (3 feet 4 inches). 

When the country has been thoroughly opened up by railroads, 
and foreign capital given more protection, there should be quite an 
extension of manufacturing in Syria, for there is a good deal of water 
power available; the Jordan, for instance, falls 4,000 feet in 120 
miles. 

TEXTILE TRADE KINDS OF GOODS WORN. 

The Syrian textile market differs from that of Asia Minor and of 
European Turkey in that the trade is in the hands of the native 
merchants, and that few foreigners or Levantines are to be found in 
business. It also differs somewhat in the styles of clothes used; for 
instance, muslins, especially tanjibs, are imported more largely at 
Beirut than at Smyrna or Constantinople, being used as head cover- 
ings by Druses and other sects that are mostly found in Syria. Also 
there is a large population of Bedouins, so that colored head cloths 
and towels, which are worn by them under their camel's-hair circlet, 
are largely in demand. 

There are no statistics available as to exact value or kinds of cloth 
imported into Syria, but the total of the cotton goods imported by 
Beirut, Alexandretta, and the smaller Syrian ports must be about 
$8,000,000 a year. The largest import seems to be of T cloth and 
gray shirting, then prints, white shirting, flannelets, sheeting, tanjibs, 
muslin, and colored goods. These goods come from Great Britain 
and Italy, with a few from Austria and Germany, and a trifle from 
the United States and other countries. 

The climate of Syria is hot and dry in summer, and rainy but 
comparatively warm in winter, so that except in the mountainous 
regions, heavy clothing is not usually required, and lighter cloths 
are mainly imported. 

The native costume in general consists of a long robe or cloak, 
with or without a varicolored waist sash, a red fez, and stockingless 
slippers. Around the cities the European costume is being adopted 
more and more. 

Cotton is raised in some places in Syria, but not in such large 
quantities as at Adana, in Asia Minor. At one time, just before the 
American civil war, cotton was grown more or less all along the coast 
from Gaza to Tyre, over an area some 100 miles long by 10 miles 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE *N TURKISH EMPIRE. 35 

wide, and there were 20,000 bales a year exported. When American 
cotton dropped in price after the war, cotton cultivation ceased in 
Syria, and has never been revived. The soil is clayey in character, 
and in places very well adapted to cotton, but as a whole it is not a 
suitable country for cotton, much of the land being available only 
when irrigated. Of some small lots I saw growing the staple was 
fairly good and would grade up well. The time of planting is April 
and time of picking September. 



BEIRUT. 
LARGE COTTON GOODS IMPORTS STEAMSHIP AND CABLE FACILITIES. 

Beirut, next to Constantinople and Smyrna, is the largest import 
center in the Ottoman Empire. It is situated in the middle of the 
Syrian coast and has an open harbor, partly protected by a break- 
water. It is the successor to the ancient Berytus, a Phoenician city, 
and its merchants still retain the commercial shrewdness if not the 
enterprise of the Old World merchants, so that while Armenians 
handle the trade at Constantinople and Greeks monopolize the trade 
of Smyrna, that of Beirut is in the hands of native Syrians, with 
whom few foreigners are able to compete. 

This port does not have the steamship facilities of Smyrna and 
Constantinople, and goods from the United States must be trans- 
shipped at Trieste, Smyrna, Alexandria, or other points. There are 
many regular steamship lines running to this port, however, so that, 
except for the delay and danger of damage by transshipment, there 
is no trouble in getting shipments from the United States as readily 
and cheaply as from Liverpool. 

The cable charges at Beirut are unduly high, by reason of mes- 
sages having first to be sent to the censor at Constantinople and no 
code being allowed. Only codes made up of words that will form 
sentences can get through the censor. The rate to Liverpool is 72 
centimes (13.9 cents) a word, but to New York it is nearly 50 cents 
a word, which is a drawback on business with the LTnited States, espe- 
cially as correspondence would take twice as long to New York as to 
Liverpool. 

The main import of Beirut, as of Turkey in general, is cotton goods. 
A leading merchant of Beirut estimates that Beirut imports annually 
about the following proportions of the main cloths, in pieces : T cloth 
and gray shirtings, 1,000,000; prints, 500,000; gray sheetings, 400,- 
000; muslins and tanjibs, 250,000; white shirting, 200,000; flannelets, 
50,000. 

T CLOTH AND SHIRTINGS. 

T cloth is one of the largest, possibly the largest, single items in the 
list of cotton piece goods imported into Beirut. T cloth is usually 
24 yards long and 32 inches wide, with a colored head end. Most 
of the T cloth imported at Beirut is 24 yards long, but the widths in 
demand vary from 26 to 36 inches. Some of the lengths marked 
24 yards only measure 22 yards. The weights per piece run from 6 
to 12 pounds, according to width and construction. The usual con- 
struction may be taken at about 18 square. 

Gray shirting is also a large import, and is the usual 38-inch, 
38-yard goods. The widths vary from 34 to 56 inches, but are nearly 
all 38 yards in length. The most popular brand is from Manchester, 



36 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 

which has a narrow green heading, and is made in varying widths. 
The construction is the same for all widths, and the weight varies 
according to the width. The one firm which has the agency at Beirut 
has a contract for 600 pieces a day of this cloth. 

White shirting is used in large quantities, and is mostly 36 and 
38 inches wide, 40 yards long. It is imported in constructions from 
12 by 14 up to 19 square. The soft finish is preferred. About the 
only American brand on the market is the 36-inch Langdon GB fine 
shirting, which is well liked. 

Turkey red shirting, if genuine, now sells for 12 cents a yard, 
but the usual Turkey red shirting on this market is really benzo color, 
which is not a fast shade, and sells for 6^ to 8 cents a yard. They 
are mostly 36-inch, 40 yard, and 18 by 19 and 18 by 21 constructions. 

PRINTS AND GRAY SHEETINGS. 

The prints needed for Beirut are rather pure finish, soft feel, and 
are wider, of closer construction, and of better quality than the aver- 
age American print. StifTer finish is required at Damascus. Syria 
in general takes cheap goods, but in prints this is not so much the 
case, as the country people wear mostly colored goods, especially the 
cheap native manufactures, and prints are worn mostly by the classes 
in town who can afford better cloth. The 64 by 60 print has little 
sale, and the prints used are at least 17 square and upward to 20 by 
21. Low qualities are also on the market, but the bulk of the de- 
mand is for the finer goods. Very few narrow prints are sold, the 
demand being for the 31-32 inch print. The lengths are mostly 56 
and 70 yards, the dealers giving as one reason that a 24-yard bolt of 
prints feels too limber, and the retail dealers want a stiff-feeling pack- 
age. There is also a saving to the manufacturer in weaving long 
lengths, and it costs less in putting up long bolts than short bolts, so 
the cost can be slightly reduced. 

The prints come in u yard" folds, of 33, 34, and 35 inches, and the 
bolt is folded three times before tacking. They are sold by the yard 
or rather fold of 33 to 35 inches instead of 36 inches, the dealers 
saying that everyone knows that by yard in this case is not meant 
36 inches. The feel is the main point. The best qualities are in the 
35-inch folds, and 50 to 60 } r ards, while the cheaper prints are mostly 
33-inch folds, 70 yards. Prints come 20 long pieces to the case, and 
there are some 2,500 cases imported a year. The prints from a Man- 
chester firm seem to have the biggest reputation. There is quite a 
good import of extracted prints, and the main colors favored are 
given by an importer as being about 30 per cent red, 20 per cent 
chocolate, 15 per cent black, 15 per cent navy blue, 10 per cent pink, 
and the remainder other colors. 

Most of the gray sheeting used in Syria comes from Italy and Aus- 
tria. The American Cabot brand is considered the standard, but 
there is little on the market, and that which is sold under this name 
is mostly the coarser, cheaper Italian cloth. These run from 10 by 12 
constructions up to 18 square. 

MUSLINS AND OTHER GOODS. 

Muslins are imported in considerable quantities for clothes, head 
cloths, veils, etc. The tanjibs, largely used for head coverings, come 
in 18-yard lengths, frequently marked 20 yards, with a colored head 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 37 

end. They are 14 to 24 inches wide, 10 by 12, 12 by 12, and 12 by 16 
construction, and cost from 30 cents up to $1.22 a piece. Muslin and 
tulle are also imported for making the coarse veils used by the 
Mohammedan women. They come in 28-inch widths, and are cut 
up into 28-inch lengths. They are hand printed with large flower de- 
signs, being similar to the art muslins used in the United States for 
cheap curtains. The construction is usually about 48 by 28 ends 
per inch. Formerly England sold this muslin to Switzerland, where 
it was hand printed and shipped to Turkey, but now the muslin is 
bought direct, and hand printed locally more cheaply. Large striped 
muslin prints are also used by the Arabs and Bedouins as head cover- 
ing under their camel' s-hair circlets, red and white being the most 
favored. 

Drills are imported in different qualities for different purposes, and 
are practically all 28-inch widths. The shoemakers prefer a stiff, 
leathery feel, and to have two blue warp threads run in on each side, 
about an inch from the edge. 

Cotton trousering comes from Italy, Belgium, Germany, and 
Austria, with some low grades from Manchester. It is usually 62 
centimeters (24.4 inches) wide, and costs from 30 to 80 centimes a 
meter (5.8 to 15.4 cents per 39.37 inches) landed at Beirut, less 
5 per cent discount for cash. 

Very few handkerchiefs are imported in plain color, being mostly 
red, white, and yellow, red, white, and black, or yellow, white, and 
black. The large ones are used for head coverings. 

TERMS OF SALE YARN IMPORTS. 

In selling cloth to Beirut, except where they have special connec- 
tions, the English system seems to be cash against documents. It is 
important to note however that they rarely expect draft to be paid 
before arrival of goods, and the collecting banks have instructions 
that drafts are to be accepted by customer and only collected on 
arrival of goods. * 

The Italians give 5 per cent discount two weeks time, 3 per cent 
discount two months time, and 5 months time without discount, 
against purchaser's acceptance. 

The Germans give 7 per cent discount thirty days time for cotton 
goods, 13 per cent discount thirty days time for woolen goods, or six 
months time, from arrival of goods, without discount, against pur- 
chaser's acceptance. 

Goods are bought by the yard or meter (39.37 inches) and sold by 
the pic of 27 inches. 

One of the largest Beirut yarn importers estimates the yarn takings 
of Beirut as 5,000 bales, 12s to 24s, from England, 120 packages to 
bale; 1,500 bales, 6s to 12s, from Italy, 40 packages to bale; 1,000 
bales, 6s to 12s, from India, 40 packages to the bale. 

Both yarn and cloth arrive at Beirut mostly in large bales, up to 
1,200 pounds in weight, and is there broken up into smaller bales of, 
say, 100 kilos (220.4 pounds) or under, for transshipment to the 
interior. Labor being much cheaper in Beirut than in manufacturing 
countries, it pays to ship in large bales and have the rebaling done 
there. The usual yarn bale from India and Italy is 40 bundles of 
10 pounds each, but the English bales come 40, 80, and 120 bundles, 
most of the bales seeming to be of the largest number. All yarn, 



38 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 

of course, is first bunched into 10-pound bundles and wrapped in 
separate packages before baling. Some yarn is put up in half bundles 
of 5 pounds each, but this is not customary. Smyrna does not do 
so much transshipping to the interior, so yarn is usually received 
there in 40-bundle bales. 

The high-grade yarn all comes from England, and it is claimed 
that in most of it 10 per cent of Egyptian is mixed with American 
cotton. The Indian yarn is nearly all from Indian cotton alone, 
while the Italians mix from 10 to 25 per cent Indian cotton with the 
American, so as to cheapen the cost. 

The most of the yarn imported is in the gray and is dyed locally. 
The quoted cost price September 15, 1907, was 7|d. (15| cents) per 
pound for 16s, and 9Jd. (19| cents) for 20s. Of the colored yarn 
imported the majority is red, yellow, or green. The additional 
charge for dyeing runs from lh to 3} pence (3 to 7 cents) a pound. 

ENGLISH PRICES FOR DYEING. 

The following list was shown me by an importer as the present 
scale of prices charged him by a Manchester concern for d}^eing, 
additional to the cost of the gray yarn, and he received 5 per cent 
ofT for monthly settlements.: Coral, light straw, ecru, nectarine, 
greenish yellow, light coral, sky, pink, light sky, light cream, cream, 
dark lavender, lavender, light blue, and peacock, ljd. (3 cents); 
lemon, lj-d. (3.8 cents); yellow, dark coral, dark red, black, dark 
fawn, olive, fawn, light drab, dark drab, greenish olive, blue, bronze 
green, dark straw, light buff, buff; light olive, indigo sky, and slate 
2d. (4 cents); pea green, 2}d. (4 J cents); crimson, light coffee, coffee, 
dark aniline orange, aniline orange, dark claret, claret, violet, dark 
buff, light green, aniline green, 2^d. (5 cents); orange, dark aniline 
green, dark aniline blue and pink, 2 J d. (5| cents); medium green, 
dark green, 3d. (6 cents); very dark green, aniline black, 3id. (6| 
cents); indigo blue, 3Jd> (7 cents); dark alizarine red, 5d. (10 cents). 

The yarn trade is much more a cash business than is the cloth 
trade. A good deal of the English yarn trade is cash before ship- 
ment, while the bulk of it is probably cash against delivery. Of 
course with their best regular customers they have special arrange- 
ments. Also some of the Syrian merchants have their own branches 
in England, in which case they make their own arrangements. The 
Indian mills ship on cash against documents, but this is usually 
taken to mean cash against delivery, and the banks are instructed 
to hold paper until the shipment arrives. The Italians give time, 
or else give a 5 per cent discount for cash in two weeks. 



JERUSALEM. 
AMERICAN BUSINESS ENTERPRISES VALUE OF THE TOURIST TRADE. 

Jerusalem is a walled city of probably 60,000 inhabitants, of whom 
some 40,000 are Jews, 13,000 Christians, and 7,000 Moslems. One of 
the most progressive associations at Jerusalem is that known as the 
American colony, of which, though there are other nationalities in- 
cluded, the majority are Americans. They run various lines of 
enterprises, especially that of manufacturing souvenirs from olive 
wood. They keep a store, at which they sell such souvenirs, rosaries, 
crosses, ornaments in mother-of-pearl, articles in black stinkstone, 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 39 

albums with olive-wood backs, books of pressed Judean flowers, etc. 
The majority of the articles they sell are made by themselves. In 
fact the industry, of which there is an export of some 500,000 francs 
($96,500) a year, has been developed at Jerusalem by the Americans. 
They also import a few American goods for their own use. About 
half the people of Jerusalem live in the suburbs, and one of the best 
of these is that inhabited by Jews from Bokhara and other cities of 
central Asia* 

The natives of this rocky, barren country are very poor, and a large 
part of the inhabitants of Jerusalem live on foreign charity, so the 
bulk of the goods required there are cheap goods. There is little 
back country trade on which to draw, and the Bedouins and other 
wandering people buy in the larger marts to the nortji. The total 
trade of Jerusalem, therefore, is not large, and there seems no pros- 
pect of much advance in this line. 

The trade, however, is much helped by the tourist traffic. It is 
claimed that 20,000 or more people visit Jerusalem each year, of which 
about one-half are Russians, the remainder being from every nation 
in Europe and the United States. There are a great number of 
wealthy tourists, who scatter much gold, not only for souvenirs, but 
for staple and fancy goods, and the number of such tourists, espe- 
cially from the United States, is increasing yearly. 

SUPPLIES OBTAINED MAINLY FROM BEIRUT. 

Commercially, Jerusalem is tributary to Beirut. There are prac- 
tically no importers of piece goods at either Jerusalem or Yafa. The 
merchants of Jerusalem make frequent trips to Beirut, and get their 
stock of goods in that market from the big importers. They usually 
have to pay part cash, but the larger merchants get three months time 
on the remainder. Some, of course, have special arrangements. The 
smaller merchants have to pay all cash, or else buy somewhat on the 
installment plan, paying so much each week to an agent at Jerusalem 
of the Beirut importer. 

If an American firm were to establish a supply house at Yafa, it 
could get much of the Jerusalem piece goods trade, but a large stock 
would have to be carried, and the enterprise would hardly pay. From 
Beirut goods can be obtained at Jerusalem in three days, with good 
connections. To Jerusalem merchants with whom they have a long 
established business the Beirut importers give long terms — three, 
four, five, or sometimes up to twelve months. For cash they offer 
discounts ranging up to 12 per cent. On the few goods imported into 
Jerusalem direct by two or three of the largest merchants the English 
demand cash against delivery, but Germans, Austrians, and Italians 
give credits up to six months from shipment, or four months from 
arrival of goods. 

Business has been bad at Jerusalem for the last two or three years. 
This is partly due to the fact that the people there are largely supplied 
with money from abroad, and as half of the Jews are from Russia the 
Russo-Japanese war affected them considerably. 

CLASSES OF PIECE GOODS USED YARN IMPORTS. 

The T cloth, shirting, and prints at Jerusalem come from England, 
all others from the Continent. There is a large sale of T cloth, in all 
widths, and of cheap prints. The T cloth widths run from 20 to 34 



40 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 

inches, and are supposed to be 24 yards long. The prints are mostly 
the regular Manchester 31-32 Inch, but there seems here to be a good 
demand for prints 35-36 inches. The fancy prints come from France, 
and are about 60 centimeters (23.6 inches) wide. The standard Eng- 
lish, gray and white shirtings have a good sale in the various sizes, 
mostly 38-inch, 38 yards, in the first, and 35-inch, 40 yards, in the 
second. The pure finish is preferred. Tanjibs, for head coverings, 
etc.,. come mostly 33 to 35 inches, 16 to 20 yards. Drills are a small 
import, mostly solid dyed or striped. Most gray drills are cotton 
and linen goods. Brilliantines are largely sold. There are few flan- 
nelets on the market. Woven goods are sold in fair quantities, espe- 
cially Oxfords. 

There is a small quantity of yarn imported, mostly in the gray or in 
black. Very little colored yarn is imported, as the gray is dyed 
locally, with indigo and aniline dyes. Most of the yarn is 20s and is 
used for making cotton stockings and knit work. There are only 
about 20 hand looms at Jerusalem, and their production is not notice- 
able. The weaver makes 3 to 5 yards of narrow nankeen a day, and 
sells it for about 10 cents a yard. There are also some similar narrow 
hand-woven goods imported from Egypt, which are used for Bedouin 
tents and for coarse wearing apparel. This is all in the gray. 

MAILS AND FREIGHT RATES RETAIL MERCHANTS. 

Letters from the United States arrive in about seventeen days, 
from England in ten. The freight from Yafa to Jerusalem is 1 franc 
per bale. The total charges from Beirut to Jerusalem is 12 francs 
($2.12) a bale. Tins includes loading, water and land transportation, 
passing customs, cartage, etc. The value of a bale may be roughly 
taken at 800 francs ($154.40). The large bales are repacked at 
Beirut, or very often at Yafa, into smaller bales, so as to be handled 
by men at Jerusalem and other places in the interior. 

Most of the merchants at Jerusalem are Jews with some SjTians 
and a few Germans. The retail cotton piece goods trade is concen- 
trated on the Street of David and its adjoining alleys. This is a nar- 
row, dirty thoroughfare that slopes down from the Tower of David to 
the old hospice of the Knights Templars. It is paved with Belgian 
block, and stepped or terraced, so that it would be impossible to drive 
down it even if it were not so narrow. It is always crowded, but 
loaded donkeys are driven up and down through the pushing crowd. 
The merchants have their goods in little open stalls on either side. As 
usual in such bazaars, different shops specialize on prints, on T cloth, 
or some other line. Some of the Jews have shops in their own houses. 
These are especially to catch the trade of the women, who do not like 
to go into the crowded public bazaars. 



HAIFA. 
PRESENT AND FUTURE IMPORTANCE— FREIGHT RATES AND ROUTES. 

Yafa, Haifa, Acre, and other small ports are supplied from Beirut, 
and are not of much interest to the exporter of piece goods. Yafa's 
only importance is as an entrance way to Jerusalem, but, as the 
harbor is small and full of jagged rocks, it is a very inconvenient 
entrance, and if the contemplated railway from Haifa to Jerusalem 
is ever built Yafa will lose what little importance it now has. Haifa, 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 41 

on the other hand, is a port of some promise. The harbor at present 
is open and landing difficult, but the sea here sweeps inland in a great 
curve, on the shores of which are situated both Haifa and Acre, and 
if the projected breakwater from the foot of Mount Carmel is ever 
built, as planned, the harbor thus made will be the best on the Syrian 
coast, and four times the size of that of Beirut. The Damascus- 
Mecca railway starts at Haifa, the Damascus-Derat line being really 
a branch, and this fact gives Haifa its present importance, and its 
great increase in imports in the last two years are mostly of railway 
material and supplies. 

The freight from Beirut to Haifa is usually 1 franc per 100 kilos 
(19.3 cents per 220 pounds). A pier duty is levied by the town of 
one-half bishlig (about 12 cents) a bale. Both the pier and custom- 
house are very small, and are to be enlarged shortly. Lighterage is 
3 piasters (13.2 cents) for 100 kilos or under, 4§ piasters for 100 to 
200 kilos (19.8 cents ner 220 to 440.8 pounds), and above that by 
arrangement. In buying from Beirut the merchants formerly got 
nine months time, but credits are being contracted, and six months 
is now about the limit. The Haifa business is too small for the 
United States, as most of the goods ordered are in half-bale lots, and 
as the minimum freight from the United States is $10, the local 
merchants could not afford to order in small quantities as they do, 
not only from Beirut but, to a certain extent, from Europe. The 
minimum freight charges are as follows: From Marseille, 96.5 cents; 
from Germany, $1.93; from the United States, $10. 

Goods from the United States formerly went by the Hamburg- 
Amerika Line to Germany, and thence by the German Levant Line to 
Haifa, and took over six months. Freights have been much expe- 
dited of late, but the quickest to be figured on now is about five 
weeks, by the Austrian Lloyd Line to Trieste, and there transshipped 
for Haifa. From Liverpool the route to Alexandria, and thence to 
Haifa, by the Khedivial Line, takes only three weeks. If shipped by 
the Prince Line the goods are transferred at Smyrna, but as stops are 
made all along the coast the time from Liverpool this way is usually 
four weeks. 



DAMASCUS. 
IMPORTANCE AS A TRADE DISTRIBUTING CENTER. 

Damascus is probably the oldest surviving city of the world, and 
is one of the most oriental of oriental cities. It is therefore strange 
to find that it is the first city in the Ottoman Empire to feel the 
vivifying influence of electricity, but along its narrow streets and 
through its kaleidoscopic crowds runs a modern electric trolley line. 
The contrast there presented, as the horn of the motorman warns the 
Bedouin with his slow camel kafila off the track, is almost startling, 
and is but an instance of how, all around the world, in the present 
decade as never before, the old order is giving way to the new. 

Damascus is the largest city in Syria, the meeting place of many 
peoples, and the best point in Asiatic Turkey at which to study the 
costumes and the textile requirements of the inhabitants. While 
Smyrna and Beirut are the two importing centers of Asiatic Turkey, 
Damascus is the largest interior distributing center, and the products 
of Manchester, Solingen, and Chicago meet here on the counter with 



42 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 

goods from Bokhara, Bagdad, and Mecca. The city is 91 miles by 
rail from Beirut and beautifully situated among green groves at the 
foot of the Lebanon Mountains. The Barada (the old Abana), the 
Nahr el-A'waj (the old Pharpar), and other rivers make and preserve 
a green valley that is wonderfully fertile, being shut in by ranges of 
mountains from the surrounding barrenness, but naturally does not 
impress the European as much as it does the Arab from the desert. 
It is a very good fruit section, its peaches rivaling those of California, 
and in other hands its fruits would be unsurpassed. 

Damascus lies at the crossroads of three continents, and at one time 
was one of the most important commercial centers of the world, 
being the connecting link between the East and the West, and the 
starting point of the great caravan traffic to Egypt, Persia, and other 
sections. The Suez Canal destroyed much of its importance by 
diverting the growing flood of commerce to another channel. The 
streets of Damascus are so crooked that one that happened to run 
straight for half its length was named the Straight street. Being so 
narrow and crooked, many are not available to teams, and much 
of the transportation is on donkeys or on the backs of porters. 

POPULATION AND BAZAARS. 

The present population is estimated at between 200,000 and 
250,000, but as the Turks are forbidden by the Koran to take any 
census, this is an estimate only. About three-fourths of the people 
are Mohammedans and the other fourth Christians, Jews, Druses, etc. 
The people of all sects are very fanatical. There are some 12,000 
Turkish troops stationed here regularly. 

The city is famous for its bazaars, which, next to those of Con- 
stantinople, are the largest in the Levant, and everything is sold from 
a candle to a camel. These bazaars consist of small stalls or dens, 
usually some 8 feet square, elevated a couple of feet above the 
ground. Here the merchant sits, cross-legged, with his goods on 
shelves around him, within convenient reach. The street extends 
across from one shop to the* other, without sidewalk, and past 
the salesman, within 3 feet, surges the travel of the city in 
endless procession, carriages and horsemen, donkeys, strings of 
camels, flocks of goats and sheep driven by Bedouins, pedestrians of 
all kinds, from the smart officer in his red fez and stiff European 
uniform to the fellaheen in squares of brown and white striped 
bagging. 

The trades congregate in separate bazaars, or streets. Thus there 
are bazaars for the coppersmiths, the saddlers, the drapers, the 
goldsmiths, the fruit bazaar, the cloth bazaar, etc. One is called the 
Greek Bazaar, from the number of Greeks trading there. This deals 
mostly in curios, antiquities, inlaid work, carpets, and other things to 
tempt the tourist. In this bazaar street there is a block of shops in 
the European style, with glass fronts, counters, etc. The Greek 
Bazaar and the Straight Street Bazaar are the two largest, and both 
are roofed. Curved iron supports run from one shop roof to the 
opposite roof and on these rests the roofing. The whole bazaar street 
is thus protected from rain and sun, but, in spite of windows at 
intervals, it makes the shops very dim, except in the middle of the day. 

In the Brokers' Market, where are sold second-hand firearms, iron- 
ware, etc., there are also to be found second-hand clothes from Eng- 
land and Germany. This is not surprising, however, for in far-away 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 43 

northern India, in Peshawar Bazaar, at the mouth of the Khyber 
Pass, Afridis and Afghans also buy clothes that once were worn by 
Londoners. 

THE CLOTH BAZAAR. 

The retail piece goods trade at Damascus is mostly carried on in 
the Cloth Bazaar, which is a street running between the Greek Bazaar 
and the Straight Street Bazaar, and is partly covered over. Here 
the different retailers, as is usual in these bazaars, tend to specialize, 
one man handling T cloth and gray shirting only, another only prints, 
the next white goods, and others only the native manufactured 
Damascus stripes, tanjibs and head cloths, etc. This is one of the 
busiest bazaars in the city and is always crowded. The Damascene 
delights in dress, and goes to the limit of his purse. The men, es- 
pecially, wear showy cloth, and like to have the best material. The 
women probably also do at home, but the high-class ladies are never 
seen in public, and even with the others it is the custom to wear black, 
which is silk or satin with those who can afford it, and native-dyed 
calico with the others. A few wear white sheets draped around 
them, and some wear yellow and black stripes, but black is the cus- 
tomary street dress for women. In Egypt the women cover their 
faces, from the eyes down, with a thin black or white veil, but in 
Damascus, and most parts of Turkey, they always wear a square of 
art muslin covering the entire face. This is exactly the same kind 
of printed art muslin that in the United States is used for cheap 
curtains. 

GARMENTS OF THE PEOPLE. 

In Damascus one sees many signs that the adoption of Western 
styles is increasing. The Turkish officers wear European uniforms, 
as a matter of course. The Turkish effendi or gentleman now almost 
invariably wears European garb in public, all except the head gear, 
which, with all classes, is the inevitable red tarbouche. Many of 
these wear oriental clothes at home and European costume abroad, 
and in shifting from Eastern to Western clothes seem to shift their 
habits, if not their opinions, also. The European shoes worn are on 
the French style, long and narrow in front, and are usually yellow or 
red. For the people generally the slipper without heel or back is 
the style, while heavy, hobnailed boots are worn by the peasants. 
The Christians are rapidly adopting European clothes as a mark of 
distinction. 

The people ordinarily wear a long robe or gown called a " kumbaz," 
made of red and yellow stripes. This reaches nearly to the ground, 
and, except for a suit of underclothing, is the sole garment. These 
gowns for the men are made of various materials, satin, prints, flan- 
nelets, native cloth, etc. On the head is the fez, and on the stocking- 
less feet the native slippers. Many wear a fancy cloth bound around 
the waist as a sash, into which they stick their matches, knives, pistols, 
or whatever else they wish to carry. It is becoming more and more 
the custom to wear a European coat outside this long robe, and the 
wearing of stockings is also becoming general among the shopkeepers 
and well-to-do classes. These are nearly all cheap German or Aus- 
trian socks, with gaudy horizontal stripes, and retail for 2 to 3 
piasters (9 to 13 cents) per pair. The people, as a rule, wear their 
clothes night and day, which causes them to wear out sooner than 
thev otherwise would. 



44 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 

COTTON GOODS TRADE. 

One of the most striking features of the cotton piece goods trade 
at Damascus is the prominence of T cloths. One of the largest mer- 
* chants I met estimated that of the total cotton cloths imported into 
Damascus 70 per cent consisted of T cloth and gray shirting. These 
are seen everywhere side by side with the native manufactured Da- 
mascus stripes. Damascus, in this respect, differs from Beirut, 
where the leading place in the local trade is taken by prints. Sheet- 
ings and drills are imported at Damascus, but not to any large extent. 
Next after the T cloth and gray shirting seem to come prints, then 
white shirting and flannelets. 

The T cloth comes in various widths, running from 20 to 36 inches 
wide and from 4 to 9 pounds in weight. Probably the most common 
is the 30-inch, weighing 7 pounds. The lengths are all 24, so marked, 
though a good deal of it measures 1 to 2 yards short, which fact is 
known by the dealers, if not by the purchaser. It is used for many 
purposes, and is called "khum" by the native. A good deal of it is 
dyed and used for the long outer clothing. The most popular brand 
is distinguished usually by a narrow green head end. A popular 
Mexican brand sold is 37 J inches by 39 yards, and is 18 by 18 con- 
struction. 

Gray shirting comes in various widths and weights, the most popu- 
lar seeming to be the 8f -pound, 37^-inch goods. White shirting 
is Called "madam," and is mostly 32, 34, and 36 inches wide and 40 
yards long. The soft finish is the most popular. 

Prints are mostly the shirting print, 31-32 inches wide-; there are 
some 29-inch and narrower prints, and some wide prints, but the 
narrow prints on the market, mostly inferior qualities, are not so 
much in demand. The 29-inch prints are mostly 17 square, while 
the 31-32 prints are mainly 19 by 17, 20 by 20, 21 by 18, and 22 by 
19, and similar constructions. The average retail price is about 2 J 
piasters, (11 cents) a pic, or 15 cents a yard. The usual prints are 
in 50 to 60 yard lengths, while the cheaper prints run up to 70 yards. 

Tanjibs are called locally "shersh, " and are largely used for head 
dress, etc. They usually come in 18 to 19 yard lengths, sometimes 
marked 20, and retail at 10 to 50 piasters (44 cents to $2.20) a piece, 
according to quality. 

A good deal of ordinary printed muslin, especially red and white 
zigzag-stripe prints, is also imported and used for head covering for 
the Arabs and others. A quantity of large bandanna handkerchiefs 
is also imported for the same purpose. 

Cloth is sold by the pic of about 27 inches. It is bought by the 
yard; from the Continent by the meter (39.37 inches). The retailers 
on prints and some other lines seem to fix their selling price per pic 
at the same as their buying price per yard. Thus, on the ordinary 
31-32 inch print, 20 by 20 construction, the price now paid by the 
retailer is about 2 piasters 30 para (10.1 cents) a yard, and six 
months time, and retails the same for 2\ piasters (11 cents) a pic. 

MARKET REQUIREMENTS AND BUSINESS METHODS. 

If Americans get into the textile market at Damascus they will 
have to offer a better article than is now on the market at a reduc- 
tion, for the people are conservative and certain brands of white 
shirting and prints have become standard articles with them and 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 45 

would be hard to displace. At the present time, however, a reduc- 
tion in price seems to have a wonderful effect, even a 2 per cent re- 
duction, and the Italians and others on some lines are getting a 
strong foothold. The continental countries give from three months 
up, the English follow suit where they are not able to control the mar- 
ket otherwise, and it is probable that Americans would have to do 
the same to build up any large trade. An American drummer, speak- 
ing French fluently, with a supply of neat head ends, and able to 
quote prices, could at least get a foothold, and, if the goods come 
up to sample, this could be enlarged; but samples with prices are the 
only way to arouse attention, as the people always want to see what 
they are buying, and especially to ascertain the feel of the goods. 

In shipping goods to a Damascus merchant drafts should be made 
to the Syrian merchant, but drawn against the Imperial Ottoman 
Bank at London. The head bank at London then sends the draft 
to its branch at Damascus for collection. The rule there is three 
months credit, or else a discount for cash. The latter is preferable. 

Most of the retail shops buy from the larger commission firms. 
These usually insist on part payment in advance, and then send a 
man around every week for a further payment, so it is really an 
installment business. There are many small merchants in this city, 
and this creates much competition, so that on many articles there 
is very little difference between wholesale and retail prices ; on others, 
say on standard articles, like certain prints or shirtings, there seems 
to be a good margin for some one, though it is oftener the intermediary 
who has the exclusive agency. 

CHANCES FOR AMERICAN AGENCIES YARN IMPORTS. 

Commercially Damascus is a dependency of Beirut, and the bulk 
of its goods are bought at that point. There are very few Damascus 
houses that import direct. One of the largest of those which does so is 
a German firm who say they are willing to handle American piece 
goods if samples are sent them and they find that prices admit of 
competition with goods from other countries. This firm, being a 
large one, can pay cash against delivery, if found to their interest. 
This is a large and reliable concern, and it would pay to send them 
samples and prices. They would prefer to get in touch with the 
manufacturers direct and cut out all middlemen expenses. [Name 
of firm on file in Bureau of Manufactures.] 

The son of the American consular agent at Damascus is at the head 
of a combination of some dozen firms who make inlaid work, fancy 
furniture, copper and brass work, etc., for the tourist trade, and who 
do a good business in the United States in this line. This gentle- 
man also handles a few American articles, and wishes to form a con- 
nection with some American manufacturer or commission agent to 
handle cotton cloth on commission, as he is in position to place goods 
to advantage. [Name on file in the Bureau of Manufactures.] 

There is a good import of yarn at Damascus, which is mainly used 
for native weaving, as the present high price of foreign goods is 
stimulating the native hand industry. 

On gray yarn India supplies about 70 per cent and Italy 25 per 
cent. The main numbers used are 6s, 8s, 10s, 12s, 14s, and 16s. 
The Italian yarn in these numbers is one-fourth Indian and three- 
fourths American cotton, but the Indian yarn,- made of all Indian 



46 .COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 

cotton, can be sold cheaper, and thus has the lead, though the Italian 
yarn is the best spun. 

On bleached yarn of finer numbers, 12s, 14s, 16s, 18s, 20s, 22s, and 
24s, England sells about 80 per cent and Italy 20 per cent. There 
is noted a tendency for the sales to Horns and Hainan to diminish, 
as they now order from Beirut instead of Damascus. Mercerized 
yarns have a smaller sale, and are supplied partly by Manchester 
and partly by Milan. 

Ply yarns are largely used in the native weaving of table covers, 
bedspreads, and such goods, as well as in garments, and have a large 
demand in numbers from 12s to 30s, two ply. The Indian cotton is 
too coarse for this work, and English and Italian yarn made of pure 
American cotton holds the market. England supplies about 50 per 
cent, Italy 40 per cent, Belgium 5 per cent, and India 5 per cent. 

Colored yarns, for the most part red, yellow, or black, 16s, 18s, 
20s, 22s, 24s, 26s, and 30s, come 70 per cent from England and 
30 per cent from Italy. In colored ply yarn, 20s, 24s, 30s, 35s, 40s, 
70s, and 80s, two ply, the import is divided between England and 
Germany. 

DAMASCUS MANUFACTURES. 

Damascus is not only the center for the distribution of foreign 
goods in Syria, but it is the center of native manufactures of all 
kinds, especially of cotton and silk goods. It has some 10,000 cotton 
and silk hand looms, besides a large number of carpet looms and 
carpet frames. Cotton manufacturing is also carried on at Horns, 
Sikkim, and other places, but probably more than one-half the native 
goods are manufactured and sold at Damascus. The looms used 
are very primitive in most cases, the majority being of the old throw- 
shuttle type. The cloth mostly made is the Damascus stripes, but 
a smaller amount of fine goods, of some artistic merit, is also turned 
out. There is quite a little weaving with tinsel and imitation gold 
and silver threads, some of this for table covers, etc., being largely 
purchased by tourists. About the coarsest cloth is the abayeh, or 
Arabian mantles, made in broad brown and white stripes, the com- 
mon wear of the poorer Bedouins and fellaheens. This is very rough 
cloth, and runs from about 8 to 16 ounces to the yard. 

For the coarse goods the local spun cotton is largely used. For 
the finer goods foreign yarn is imported, and also, to some extent, 
for the medium grade goods, the yarn usually being imported in the 
gray* and dyed locally. The yarn so imported is 4s to 30s, the bulk 
of it being 20s. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE STRIPED GOODS MADE. 

The Damascus stripes are largely worn by the people, and the 
majority consists of narrow red and yellow stripes. A typical stripe, 
probably the most common of all, is made of 19 red and 15 yellow 
warp threads alternately in a 20-inch width, using black filling. The 
construction is 48 filling threads per inch and averages 85 warp 
threads per inch, but the reeding is irregular, the 15 yellow ends 
being crowded into just half the space of the 19 red ends. This 
irregular reeding makes a stronger cloth. Another very popular 
design consists of red stripes of 24 ends alternately, with a series of 
closer reeded stripes made of 6 white ends, 4 green, 3 red, 5 white, 
3 red, 4 green, and 6 white. The filling is black, and the width 20 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 47 

inches. These two are typical patterns, such as are worn by mer- 
chants and business men. A somewhat gayer pattern, often seen, 
is composed of 18 white warp ends, 24 yellow, 18 white, 48 black, 
18 white, 44 red, 18 white, 48 black, there being 8 repeats in 19 inches. 
The filling is white, 32 picks to the inch. This piece is heavily 
starched and of cheaper quality than the first two. The regular 
length of the native stripes is 9 pics of 27 inches each, or 6f yards, 
and it is retailed by the piece. Manchester and Germany have some 
imitation stripes on the market which have a small sale. 

The trade of Damascus is large, and is increasing, and this would 
seem to indicate a rather more prosperous condition of the fellaheens 
and Bedouins (the settled peasants and the migratory pastoral 
tribes), as it is on them that the trade depends. Damascus and 
Beirut are the important points in Syria, with Alexandretta and 
Aleppo next. 



EGYPT. 

DECLINE IN PRODUCTION OF TEXTILES. 

MANUFACTURING NOW LIMITED TO ONE MILL AND SCATTERED HAND 
LOOMS CAUSES OF PRESENT CONDITIONS. 

Cotton manufacturing is not a very promising industry in Egypt. 
There is only one cotton mill in the country, which in this respect is 
behind all other cotton-raising countries, where the tendency is for 
the cotton mills to go to the cotton fields. The sole representative 
in Egypt of the world's greatest industry is the Anglo-Egyptian 
Spinning and Weaving Company (Limited), which has 20,000 spin- 
dles and 500 looms, and is located at Alexandria. 

Until the first of this year there were two cotton mills in Egypt, 
but the other one, The Egyptian Cotton Mills (Limited) , of Cairo, has 
ceased operations, and the machinery has been sold and will be shipped 
to Mersine, near Tarsus, in Asia Minor, where it will be run on coarse 
counts using local cotton. This mill operated 20,000 spindles and 360 
looms. In the early part of the nineteenth century, before the present 
variety of Egyptian cotton had been evolved, there were several small 
cotton mills started in Egypt. These did not have much success and 
soon disappeared. In the last years of the nineteenth century more 
determined efforts were made to bring the cotton mills to the cotton 
fields of Egypt, but once again there has been failure, so that now 
only one mill survives. 

HANDICAPS TO COTTON MANUFACTUEING. 

One adverse factor is that the English Government, while very 
friendly to cotton raising in her possessions and countries where her 
influence is paramount, is unfriendly to cotton manufacturing in those 
lands. Local cotton factories would, other things being equal, Jiave 
quite an advantage over Lancashire by having no freight and no duty 
to pay. To counterbalance this, the English Government, through the 
influence of Lancashire, placed an excise tax, equal to the duty, on the 
production of all cotton mills in such countries. The Indian mills 
therefore pay 3J per cent excise tax on all goods manufactured, but 
the Egyptian handicap is much greater, as the duty is 8 per cent, and 
an equivalent special tax is a great drawback to cotton manufac- 
turing. , 

The insufficiency of efficient help available, however, has probably 
had the largest effect in retarding the industry, together with the 
fact that the first cost of the machinery and the supplies are much 
higher than in England. The climate also is unsuitable for cotton 
manufacturing. The wages paid are much higher than in India, 
while the workers are but little if any more efficient, It takes two 
or three operatives to do the work of one English operative. The 
native Egyptians do not seem to take to the steady indoor work of a 
cotton mill and labor has to be obtained among other nationalities to 
fill out, and some have to be imported at quite an expense to the mill. 
In the one cotton mill remaining, that at Alexandria, there is probably 

48 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 49 

as much diversity of peoples and languages represented as in any 
mill in the world. There are Egyptians (Copts), Arabs, Turks, 
Syrians, Russians, French, Italians, Moors, etc., the manager saying 
that his pay roll showed 17 languages spoken among the 600 operatives. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE EXISTING MILL CLASSES OF OUTPUT. 

This mill is situated on a canal on the outskirts of Alexandria and 
is a one-story brick building. The weave shed has a saw-tooth roof 
and cement floor. The humidity is regulated by large tapering tin 
pipes conveying steam into the room through outlets at various 
points. Belting is little used, as rope driving is employed not only 
for the main drive and for counters, but also for the direct drive to 
the spinning frames. The spinning frames are placed according to 
the usual English practice across the mill, so that the light shines 
down the aisles between the frames, and the driven pulleys are all in 
the middle alley down the length of the room. The two lines of shaft- 
ing run down the sides of the room, and long quarter-turn drives 
convey the power to the driven pulleys of the spinning frames. In 
the case of such long quarter-turn drives the manager stated that he 
preferred the ropes where he had a good rope splicer, but that if such 
an operative was lacking they were a source of much annoyance. 

This mill both dyes and bleaches. Raw stock d}^eing is not used, 
all dyeing being on the cop. The quality of the bleaching is very 
good, being aided by the fact that Egyptian cotton is specially 
adapted to bleaching, both the brown Mit Afifi and the whiter Yan- 
novitch giving beautiful results. 

Both yarn and cloth are made for sale, the largest part of the out- 
put being coarse goods. Ring frames are used and the average 
number spun is under 20s, but there is also a small production of 
white shirting, jaconets, and sateens made from about 50s yarn, for 
which the Yannovitch cotton is used. The goods made are mostly 
coarse gray sheetings, tan jibs, drills, shirtings, and colored stripes for 
the Arabs. These latter are stiffly back starched and run through 
steam calendar rolls to give the hard, brilliant finish preferred by 
tbe Arabs. The weaving embraces quite a variety of cloths from the 
coarsest two-harness goods 10 by 10 ends per quarter inch and 12s 
yarn to sateen goods made on dobbies from 50s yarn, and including 
colored goods made from either one or two warp beams. The looms 
are made for cloths from 24 to 40 inches, and there are a few dobbies. 
The main gray goods are 17 by 13, 13 by 13, and 14 by 12 construc- 
tions. It is interesting to note that this mill makes an imitation 
American sheeting that it labels " Cabot " after the well-known 
American mill brand of that name. This is 13 by 13, 32-inch, 
24-yard goods, though the name is also put on a still coarser grade. 
The weavers run one to three looms, mostly one or two, and the prices 
paid vary according to the cloth. On heavy sheeting 14 by 12 con- 
struction the price is 9 milliemes, say 4J cents, per 24-yard cut. 

YARN AND CLOTH EXPORTS. 

The yarns are bunched in a bundling press as usual into 10-pound 
packages, paper covered, and then put up into 50-bundle, 500-pound 
bales. About one-third of the yarn output is sent to Turkey and the 
remainder used by Egyptian handloom weavers. On the lower 
counts this yarn has to stand competition with cheap yarn from India. 
27703—08 4 



50 



COTTON TEXTILE TKADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 



while the English yarns practically monopolize the high-count trade. 
For this reason part of the yarn is exported to countries needing yarn 
cheaper than the fine English and of better grade than the coarse 
Indian. The total yarn exported is small, however, as the following 
table for Egypt's yarn export in 1906 shows : 



Country. 


Pounds. 


Value. 


Turkey 


363, 029 

102, 114 

2,416 


$61,743 


England 


15, 131 


Austria-Hungary 


400 








Total 


467, 559 


77, 274 







There was also exported some cloth, mainly to Turkey, but as there 
is mixed with this a small quantity of cloth reexported it is impos- 
sible to say exactly what proportion is Egyptian made, or hoAv much 
is mill cloth and how much handmade. The cloth exported from 
Egypt in 1906 was as follows : 



Country. 



Turkey 

Italy 

French Mediterranean pos 

sessions 

Germany 



Pounds. Value. 



277, 168 
38, 962 

28, 458 
19,034 



$72, 104 
7,073 

7,390 
2, 990 



Country 



Greece 

Other countries 

Total 



Pounds. 



1,085 
7,001 



371, 708 



Value. 



$316 
1,834 



91, 707 



The trade-mark of this mill is a rectangle 5 inches by 8 inches 
inclosing two pyramids and four palm trees, with a crocodile in the 
foreground. 

WAGES PAID AND COTTON USED. 

English machinery is used throughout. The wages paid are high 
as compared with Indian mills and are steadily advancing from year 
to year. Men start in at 6 piasters (say 30 cents) and soon get 8 to 9 
piasters (40 to 45 cents) a day and over. Women and men work 
together and some young children are employed, both boys and girls. 
Spinners are paid by the day, in fact reelers and weavers are about 
the only hands on a piecework system. A girl running two sides of 
warp gets about 25 cents, but on fine weft may get as much as 50 cents. 
The spinners run from a half to two long sides. This Alexandria 
mill uses some 18,000 cantars (cantar— 99.05 pounds) of cotton a year, 
which corresponds to some 2,500 bales, but a good portion is received 
in the loosely bound uncompressed bales from the gins. The majority 
of this of course is the Mit Afifi variety, which forms the bulk of the 
Egyptian crop, but a smaller amount of Yannovitch is also used for 
the finer goods. The percentage of waste is figured at 25. This is 
nearly all sold and exported except the oily waste, which is cleaned 
and reworked. 

The working hours are from 6 a. m. to 6.10 p. m. Hands are 
relieved in batches for ten minutes for breakfast and the mill stops 
an hour for dinner at noon, so that the operating time is only eleven 
hours a day. 

OPERATION OF HAND LOOMS. 

There was imported into Egypt in 1906 2,506,199 kilograms, say, 
5,526,170 pounds, of cotton yarn, of a value of £198,106, which is about 
$979,238. This yarn, as also a part of the production of the two 



COTTON TEXTILE TKADE IN TURKISH EMPIRE. 



51 



cotton mills that have been operating in Egypt and a small amount 
of hand-spun yarn, was consumed by Egyptian hand looms. There 
are no figures available as to these, but those best informed as to the 
industry say the number of hand looms must be something over 
20,000. Some of these are very primitive, being of the old " throw- 
shuttle " type, where the shuttle is thrown through the shed with 
one hand and caught with the other. Other looms, however, are of 
improved European make, and production on these is claimed to be 
not much inferior to that obtained by the average weaver in the 
Egyptian cotton mill. One cotton-mill manager said that he had 
timed* some of the best hand-loom weavers at Zagazig, where there 
are some 2,000 hand looms, and found them making 160 picks a 
minute. I did not find any as fast as that, but the speed/ attained on 
these improved hand looms is, of course, much higher than that pos- 
sible on the best types even of the crude native-made looms. Some of 
the looms turn out as much as 48 yards a day on coarse cloths. Some 
weavers make very fine goods, but the majority of the goods turned out 
are the cheapest, coarsest varieties of sheetings and tanjibs. 



EXPORTS OF COTTON GOODS TO EGYPT. 
DECREASE IN PLAIN AND INCREASE IN COLORED PIECE GOODS. 

According to official returns, the exports of cotton piece goods 
and yarns from the United Kingdom to Egypt during the calendar 
years 1906 and 1907, as compiled by the Bureau of Manufactures, 
were as follows : 



Description. 


(Quantity. 


Value. 


Price, in cents. 


1906. 


1907. 


1906. 


1907. 


1906. 


1907. 


Piece goods: 

Unbleached 


Yards. 

99,751,300 

111, 756, 700 

54, 896, 800 

30, 798, 800 


Yards. 

76, 740, 400 
92,931,500 
59, 796, 700 
36, 258, 900 


$3, 838, 530 
5,907,312 
3, 728, 727 
2, 108, 730 


52, 914, 454 
5, 029, 785 
4, 225, 942 
2, 710, 315 


Per yard. 
3.85 
5.29 
6.80 
6.85 


Per yard. 
3.80 


Bleached 


5.41 


Printed 

Dyed or of dyed yarn. . . 


7.07 
7.47 


Total and average 


297, 203, 600 


265, 727, 500 


15, 583. 299 


14, 880, 496 


5.24 


5.60 


Yarns: 

Gray 


Pounds. 
2, 354, 100 
1, 160, 600 


Pounds. 
1,988,600 
993, 100 


417, 799 
254, 571 


394, 702 
245, 164 


Per pound. 
17.75 
21.93 


Per pound. 
19.85 


Bleached and dved 


24.69 


Total and average 


3, 514, 700 


2, 981, 700 


672, 370 


639, 866 


19.13 


21.46 



AMERICAN TEXTILES IN EGYPT. 



In a report from Consul-General L. M. Iddings, of Cairo, published 
in the Daily Consular and Trade Reports for November 1, 1907, the 
total value of all classes of textiles imported into Egypt in 1905 and 
1906 is given as $30,264,245 and $30,504,175, respectively, of which 
the imports from the United States were as follows: 



Articles. 



Cotton goods 

Sail cloth 

Linoleum 

Linen goods . 



1905. 



$820 

1,975 

1,145 

75 



1906. 



$120 

3,375 

1,020 

250 



Articles 



Clothing... 
Sundries. . . 

Total 



1905. 



12,340 



16, 785 



1906. 



50 



5,365 



GREECE 



53 



COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE. 

AN ATTRACTIVE MARKET FOR TEXTILES. 

STEADY GROWTH IN SALES OF COTTON GOODS ADVANTAGES OFFERED 

AMERICAN MANUFACTURERS. 

Greece is an isolated country of 25,941 square miles that supports a 
population of some 2,500,000 people and has a foreign trade of about 
$40,000,000 a year. It has no railroad connection with any other 
country, and being cut off from the rest of Europe by the mountains 
of Turkish Macedonia on the north, all commerce is by sea. The 
principal ports are Pirseus (the port for Athens), Patras, and Volo 
on the mainland and the island ports of Syra and Corfu. The Greeks 
probably number, all told, 8,000,000, of whom about 4,000,000 are in 
Turkey. 

Among the smaller countries of the Levant Greece should be noted 
by our cotton manufacturers as one affording an outlet for a small 
but steady volume of goods. The trade in this line is increasing very 
slowly, but fluctuates little. By the direct steamship lines recently 
established goods can be landed at Piraeus quicker from New York 
than from Liverpool, and at equal or less freight rates ; so the market 
is now readily accessible. Greece imports annually about $400,000 
worth of cotton, $300,000 worth of cotton yarn, and $2,000,000 worth 
of cotton cloth. The trade of the country in these, as well as in most 
other lines, is dominated by Great Britain. 

BUSINESS METHODS EMIGRATION HELPFUL TO AMERICAN TRADE. 

In doing business with Greece correspondence, catalogues, etc., 
should preferably be in French. French is taught in all the schools, 
while English is comparatively little known. Three months' time 
is essential on most goods. In giving credit careful inquiry should 
be made in this country ; but there are many reliable firms. The cus- 
tom of credit is universal. On very few lines could a business be 
built up here on the "cash against documents" system and on none 
on the " payment in advance " system. The importers give long time 
to the smaller dealers to whom they sell, and demand time themselves 
to help them carry the business, and as they can always get time from 
one or another of the nations competing in their particular lines 
America will have to pay heed to the custom. The drawback to 
the Grecian trade is that the country is small in area and the imports 
almost on a retail basis, there being few merchants able to pay cash 
for goods before arrival and finance themselves until the returns 
finally come in from their six months' sales to customers. The small- 
ness of the trade in some lines is shown by the fact that in all of 

55 



56 



COTTON TEXTILE TEADE JN GREECE. 



Greece there are less than 100 typewriters. While small as compared 
with many markets, the trade of Greece is worth cultivating, espe- 
cially since the new direct steamship lines have placed the United 
States on a competing basis with the European nations. The Italians 
and Germans seem, as a rule, to give longer credits than the English., 
up to six months or over. Three months' time seems essential to gain 
any footing in this trade, but longer than that is not advisable, as 
a firm whose financial standing is strong enough to justify longer time 
would be strong enough not to need it. 

One factor that should aid considerably in building up American 
trade with Greece is the emigration from that country to the 
United States. The number of Greeks so emigrating has been usually 
about 10,000 annually, but the new lines have greatly stimulated this ; 
for 1906 it was 27,000, and for 1907 it will be much greater. There 
are so many American flags flying from the flagpoles of emigration 
agencies at Piraeus that one landing from the ship might be excused 
for imagining it the national flag. These Greek emigrants raise 
money in various ways to purchase their passage and soon begin 
sending back remittances to pay the debts thus incurred. Others send 
back money to their families or relations. It is estimated that the 
yearly total sent from the United States to Greece amounts to at least 
40,000,000 francs ($7,720,000), and it is on the increase. Many 
accumulate money and return, and each one who does so tends to 
familiarize the people with American goods and to create a demand 
for American manufactures. 

COTTON INDUSTRY LOCAL MILLS AND THEIR PRODUCTS. 

The cotton manufacturing industry in Greece dates from 1870, 
when a spinning mill was erected at Piraeus, and the industry has, 
in spite of many ups and downs, and though still very small, con- 
tributed considerably toward the upbuilding of the country. 

There are no accurate statistics in regard to the industry. One of 
the largest cotton brokers of Piroeus, who is in a position to be well 
informed, gives the number of mills, large and small, at 23, dis- 
tributed as follows: 



Location. 


Spinning. 


Weaving. 


Location. 


Spinning. 


Weaving. 


Piraeus 


5 
3 
3 
4 


4 


Chalkis 


1 
1 




Patras 


Volo 






2 


Total 




Livadia 


17 


6 











The total number of spindles is estimated at 99,300 and the number 
of looms at 1,205, employing about 5,000 operatives. The total pro- 
duction is figured. out at 3,600,000 skeins of yarn and 8,561,000 meters 
of cloth (meter=39.37 inches), 941,787 kilos in weight (kilo=2.2 
pounds). Three-fourths of the industry is concentrated at Piraeus. 
Practically all machinery is English. The mills usually run an 

a The statistics given in the report of the Commissioner-General of Immigra- 
tion for 1907 show that 19,489 immigrants came to the United States from 
Greece during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1906, while the number arriving 
for the twelve months ended June 30, 1907, was 36,580.— B. of M. 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN GREECE. 57 

eleven-hour day and the operatives, of whom the majority are women 
and girls, get from one-half to 2 or even 4 drachmas a day (5.45 
drachmas=:$l), averaging probably about 1J drachmas, or 27^ cents, 
a day. 

CHANGING CLOTHING CUSTOMS FLUCTUATING CURRENCY. 

The mills make sheetings, coarse cottonades, plaids, ginghams, cot- 
ton trouserings, and checks and stripes of various kinds. The coarse 
cottonades, overall cloth, etc., are worn by the peasant classes, and in 
these lines the native mills supply the market cheaper than can be 
done by foreign nations, the tariff being especially adapted to aid 
this. The mountain regiments of the Greek army and the people in 
the more remote parts of the country still wear the old Greek costumes, 
but the bulk of the people wear ordinary European attire, and what 
is sometimes supposed to be the Greek national costume is becoming 
a thing of the past. The peasant women, for instance, are continually 
bringing in their old costumes, elaborately wrought with needlework, 
which they sell for a small price and purchase cheap Manchester 
calicoes. 

The largest cotton manufacturing company is that of Retzina 
Brothers, of Piraeus, who have three mills, one making yarn only, 
one making "American cloth " (sheetings) only, and one, using skein 
dyeing, making colored goods of various kinds. The three mills of 
this company contain 30,000 spindles and 400 looms. Five years ago 
the Greek textile industry was very prosperous and cotton goods were 
exported to Crete, Turkey, and other near-by countries. At that time 
it took 8.35 to 8.50 paper drachmas to equal an American dollar, but 
now it takes only 5.45. As the Greek exports were paid for abroad 
in gold and converted at home into paper drachmas to pay for 
cotton and wages, this rising value of the drachma has been to the 
disadvantage of manufacturers and has closed to them all outside 
markets. Only the tariff enables them to retain their hold on the 
home market in coarser cloths. The industry has experienced a good 
many obstacles, and fortunes have been lost in it, but it is to-day 
fairly prosperous. There are a few hand looms scattered throughout 
Greece, which make mostly sailcloth and coarse wearing apparel. 

GROWTH AND CONSUMPTION OF COTTON.. 

About one-half of the cotton used in the home mills is raised in 
Greece and the other half is imported, the total being some 20,000 
bales only. The Grecian cotton is better than that from Asia Minor, 
is clean, and five-eighths to seven-eighths inch staple. It is harsher 
than American, and the staple runs much more uneven. There are no 
figures available as to the outturn, but the largest cotton dealer at 
Piraeus estimates the average crop at 2,000,000 okes, which is about 
5,640,000 pounds. A small amount is used by hand workers, but the 
bulk of the crop goes to the cotton mills. American ginning machin- 
ery is preferred to the English. The cotton is put up in large sacks 
or loosely packed bales. The cotton-growing section centers around 
Livadia, in Boeotia, where a large lake bottom has been reclaimed 
by an English company. 



\ 



58 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN GREECE. 



The cotton imported into Greece is divided by the customs returns 
into Turkish and Indian, American, and Egyptian. The imports for 
the last five years are given as follows : 



Year. 


Turkish and. Indian. 


American. 


Egyptian. 


Total imported. 


Pounds. 


Value. 


Pounds. 


Value. 


Pounds. 


Value. 


Pounds. 


Value. 


1902 


1,606,114 
1,890,613 
2, 280, 675 
2, 496, 797 
2, 685, 503 


$126, 410 
149, 024 
187, 372 
196, 512 
217, 251 


1,145,718 
1, 136, 009 
1, 086, 667 
1,741,356 
2, 025, 513 


$114, 258 
112, 735 
107, 838 
172, 808 
191,492 


592, 121 
178, 348 
657, 545 
417, 182 
347, 768 


$66, 866 
20, 120 
74, 253 
47, 111 
37, 785 


3, 343, 953 
3, 204, 970 
4, 024, 887 
4, 655, 335 
5, 058, 784 


$307, 534 
281,879 


1903 


1904 


369, 463 


1905 


416, 431 


1906 


446, 528 




» ' 





COMPLAINTS REGARDING AMERICAN COTTON. 

The cotton shown as Turkish and Indian is nearly all Turkish, 
being imported from the two Asia Minor ports of Smyrna and Mer- 
sina, and mostly raised in the section around Adana. About 400 
bales of Indian cotton were imported last season. It was very dirty, 
and the mills found difficulty in mixing and working it satisfactorily 
with the other cottons, and will hardly import any more. The Amer- 
ican cotton is preferred, but the manufacturers complain, in regard 
to shipments from America, that some bales are falsely packed, some 
have sand, and one manufacturer reports a recent shipment which 
turned out to be entirely sweepings. In this latter case the American 
cotton broker declined to replace with cotton as ordered, but offered 
to make an allowance for the deficiency. As the mill can not work 
sweepings, the matter had to be settled by arbitration. Some of the 
importers claim they have to order through London simply for this 
reason, though the freight rate from Liverpool is 32s. 6d., as com- 
pared with 30s. per ton from New York direct. The freight rate 
from New Orleans to Piraeus, on account of transshipments, is ex- 
cessive, being 52 cents a hundred pounds. 

Local cotton is sold by the oke of 2.82 pounds, the present price 
being 1.8 drachmas per oke, which is about 11.7 cents a pound. The 
American grades imported are mostly good middling and fully good 
middling, the latter being now (October, 1907) quoted, landed at 
Piraeus, at 7.5d. (15 cents) a pound, the middling price corresponding 
being 6.82d. a pound. One of the largest importers of American cot- 
ton [name on file at Bureau of Manufactures] desires to form a con- 
nection with an American cotton manufacturer or commission house 
to handle American piece goods on a commission basis. 

TRADE IN COTTON YARN AND THREAD. 

Of the cotton yarns imported into Greece about 75 per cent is 
from England, 15 per cent from Italy, and 5 per cent each from 
Germany and Austria, with occasional contributions from France, 
Switzerland, and Turkey. On most lines the Grecian importers 
demand time, but, being able to control the yarn market, the English, 
on this item, usually insist on cash against documents. The Italian 
competition is keen on certain lines, but they can not compete on the 
high-grade counts. 

The bulk of the imports is coarse, unbleached yarns, mostly 8s, 10s, 
12s, 16s, and 20s. A good part of this is dyed locally before use. 
The price of yarn seems to be lower than would allow of competition 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN GREECE. 



' 59 



from America. On sewing thread the market is controlled by the 
English. America does not seem to compete, but the Germans are 
making efforts to increase their present small sales. The imports of 
yarn and sewing thread for the past two years are given in detail as 
follows : 



1905. 



Description. 



Unbleached: 

Under No. 24 

Above No. 24 

Bleached: 

Under No. 24 

Above No. 24 

Colored: 

Under No. 24 

Above No. 24 

Oil dyed, all numbers. 
Gray twist: 

Under No. 24 

Above No. 24 

Colored twist: 

Under No. 24 

Above No. 24 

Oil-dyed twist 

Sewing thread 



Pounds. Value. 



,807,476 
31,807 

44,928 
13,251 

14, 791 
10, 998 
41, 674 

23, Oil 
3, 232 



1,328 

31,590 

308, 232 



$241, 221 
5,768 

6,150 

2,721 

2,682 
2,258 
6,978 

4,724 

774 



409 

6,950 

55, 896 



Total 2,332,318 336,531 



1906. 



Pounds. Value 



149, 742 
40, 186 

26, 601 
13, 231 

15, 786 

4,072 

40, 250 

58, 552 
21,776 

1,196 



26, 313 
320, 724 



1, 718, 429 



$153, 441 
7,290 

3,750 
2,717 

3, 224 

819 
10, 467 

12, 022 
5,216 

327 



9,004 
53, 059 



261, 336 



COTTON PIECE GOODS. 

The cotton goods imported into Greece are prints, white shirtings. 
T cloths, oxfords, cotton flannels, and colored linings. The trade is 
monopolized by England, which exports about 70 per cent of the 
total, Germany about 15 per cent, and Austria, Italy, and France each 
about 5 per cent. Holland, Belgium, and other countries export 
small quantities, and at the bottom of the list there is a few hundred 
dollars' worth from the United States. 

In gray goods England has a complete monopoly, for the reason 
that the gray goods imported are mainly gray shirtings and T cloths, 
two articles in which England supplies the world, while coarser 
sheetings, drills, etc., are very little imported, being made by the 
local mills. In bleached goods England supplies over 90 per cent, 
with a few coming from Germany, Austria, and Italy. In prints 
and colored goods in general England supplies the bulk of the trade 
and is followed by Germany, France, Austria, and Italy. In dyed 
drills and similar goods, and in trouserings, cottonades, and other 
coarse goods of dyed yarn the first place is held by Germany, fol- 
lowed by England, Italy, and Austria. Colored cotton linings are 
supplied by England, with some from Italy and Germany. 

Batistes come from England, Austria, and Germany ; muslins and 
tulles from England ; laces from Germany and England ; and grena- 
dines from Italy. Head handkerchiefs come from England; velvets 
from England, France, and Germany; cretonnes from England, 
France, and Italy ; satins from England ; piques from England ; and 
cotton flannels from England, Germany, and Italy. Braids, tapes, 
and similar goods are supplied by Italy; ribbons, etc., come from 
England and Germany. Socks are furnished by Germany and Aus- 
tria; underwear by Austria, England, and Germany; and ready- 
made clothes by England. 



60 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN GREECE. 



DETAILED COTTON GOODS IMPORTS. 



The following list shows in detail the cotton goods imported into 

Greece in 1905-6. 



Description. 



1905. 



Pounds. Value 



1906. 



Pounds. Value 



Unbleached cloths: 

36 threads a 

44 threads a 

56 threads « 

Bleached goods 

Printed and colored goods, not specially mentioned 

Colored cottons, such as colored drills and stripes, twills, 

checks, and similar goods for use of laborers 

Colored linings 

Wicks, etc 

Boot straps 

Cotton belting 

Batistes 

Gauzes 

Muslins 

Grenadines 

Tulles 



Laces 

Head scarves 

Cotton linens 

Made-up goods, except ready-made clothing. 

Velvets 

Cretonnes 

Satins 



Piques 

Garters, ribbons, edgings, Spanish and Indian muslin 

above 75 threads 

Head handkerchiefs 

Socks 



Remnants, except madapollams . 

Cords and braids 

Cotton flannels, white or colored. 

Toil6 a voile 

Ready-made clothes: 

Men and boys' 

Women and girls' 



1, 312, 521 

78, 478 

7,072 

1, 103, 088 

1, 845, 109 

356, 950 

401, 384 

14, 136 

8,333 

7,262 

10, 504 

1,985 

87 

524 

1,926 

11, 630 

1,009 

89, 963 

6,551 

51,493 

56, 231 

51, 284 

23, 671 

103,184 

2,783 

38, 369 

13, 699 

22, 504 

199, 363 
32, 670 



186 



$212, 702 

16, 113 

1,694 

341, 992 

631, 336 

195, 436 

139, 748 

2, 128 

855 

3,876 

20, 130 

3,804 

168 

1,005 

3,691 

22, 286 

2,764 

92, 356 

6,740 

28, 193 

30, 787 

27, 693 

12, 960 

76, 453 
3,329 

21, 991 
8,438 

10, 781 

65, 493 
4,919 

9 
453 



1,435,166 

11, 379 

6,799 

1,065,447 

1, 885, 872 

294, 361 

391, 450 

15, 755 

5,934 

12, 591 

11,438 

14, 664 

178 

20 

2,335 

10, 112 

505 

87, 287 

9,303 

58, 238 

61,030 

65, 624 

37, 731 

137, 585 

3,743 

49, 564 

12, 101 

21, 192 

231,040 
30, 346 

141 
1,810 



$240, 844 

2, 336 

1,629 

329, 670 

645, 342 

161, 173 

133, 953 

2,372 

586 

6,721 

21, 919 

28, 101 

340 

38 

4,475 

19, 379 

1,222 

89, 609 

9,551 

32, 323 

33, 415 

35, 930 

20, 659 

65, 914 
4,610 

27,137 
7,448 

10,153 

75,885 
5,871 

12 
4,279 



Total 



1, 990, 323 



2, 022, 896 



a Contained in a square of 5 millimeters side [millimeter = 0.03937 inch] . 

The Greek Government issues quarterly reports detailing the ex- 
ports and imports, and also a final yearly report. This latter, possi- 
bly due to corrections, rarely, if ever, gives totals exactly correspond- 
ing to those of the four quarterly statements. The annual statement 
does not come out for a year after, so the 1906 figures I give are those 
obtained by adding up the quarterly statements and then converting 
to pounds and dollars. The yearly report when issued will probably 
give figures slightly different, but not materially so. The Greek 
custom-house returns are not kept very accurately, but their figures 
are valuable as showing the general trend of the trade in different 
lines. 

The foregoing figures for the past two years show not only about 
the same amount of goods taken each year, but almost exactly the 
same amount of each kind of cloth. This remarkable uniformity in 
the consumption of each kind of cloth has existed for some time, with 
a slight upward tendency. 

PRINT GOODS PREFERENCES STYLES OF WHITE SHIRTING DESIRED. 

Prints of various kinds probably constitute the largest single im- 
port item. Shirting prints constitute the bulk of this, though there 
are also good amounts of printed muslins, flannelets, etc. The shirt- 
ing print needed is wider and of finer construction than the standard 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN GREECE. 61 

American print, the demand being for a 31 to 32 inch wide print of 
about 17 by 18 or finer construction. The poorer classes wear coarse 
cottonades, checks, stripes, etc., made in Greece from lower-grade cot- 
ton, and the consumption of prints is more by the better classes, so the 
result is a demand for a good quality in this line. The majority of 
the prints are also more stiffly starched than the American, though 
very heavy sizing is not favored. 

White shirting is probably the next largest cloth import and is em- 
ployed for all kinds of dress and household use from bed sheets to the 
short fustanella skirts, resembling those of ballet dancers, worn by 
the Ef zones and other highland regiments in the Greek army. The 
English makes of white shirting that have the greatest reputation 
here bear the trade-marks of " Croydon " and " Horrockses." The 
widths imported run from 31 to 88 inches, and the finish varies from 
the pure sized to a stiff finish with over 50 per cent sizing. The white 
shirtings in largest use on the Athenian market are as follows : 

(a) A white shirting of the Croydon make, 3LJ inches wide, 18 
square per quarter inch, that comes in 24 and 38 yard lengths, and is 
retailing in Athens at 50 lepta a pic, which is about 13.9 cents a yard. 

(b) A white shirting stamped " Cambrick Frangais, British Mfg., 
Helen CBA," that has a cambric finish, is 32| inches wide, 20 square, 
and retails for 55 lepta a pic, or 15.3 cents a yard. 

(c) A white shirting, same price as (b) , but 34r| inches wide, 18 by 
17, and has somewhat coarser yarns. 

(d) A fine-finish white shirting, 35J inches wide, 20 by 19, that 
retails at 65 lepta a pic, or 18 cents a yard. 

(e) A longcloth with the brand of Horrockses, Miller & Co., 36f 
inches wide, 25 by 22, that retails at 85 lepta (16.4 cents) a yard. 

(/) White shirting for bed sheets. This is mostly 16 square and 
comes in five widths, 48, 66, 72, 84, and 90 inches. The 72-inch width 
retails at 2 drachmas a pic, or, say, 55 cents a yard, and the others in 
proportion. 

LARGE IMPORTATIONS OF GRAY GOODS. 

T cloth is largely imported and is used for many purposes — for 
clothing and household use, for light bags, for spreading over 
raisins while drying, etc. Gray shirting is also a large import, and 
the two constitute the bulk of the import of gray goods. There is 
very little sheeting or drills imported, as the little demand for these is 
supplied by the local mills. Occasionally one sees in a shop a few 
pieces of " Lyman " or other American sheetings, but the total is 
trifling, and there is no opening here in that line. The gray shirtings 
are the well-known English makes, and mostly 38J inches wide and 
39 yards long. Usually for gray shirting a head end is made with a 
few picks of coarser yarn, but colored head ends are also used here, a 
solid green heading about 1 inch wide being perhaps the most com- 
mon. The T cloths are always made 24 yards long, and the standard 
width is 32 inches, but this market uses also narrower widths down to 
29 inches. T cloth always has a colored heading and the width and 
color of the heading is varied to suit the importing merchant. Green 
seems to be the color most used for the headings as imported into 
Greece, a common heading being about one-eighth inch red filling, 
If green, and then one-eighth inch red, making up a 2-inch heading. 
The constructions used for the T cloths are mostly 16 and 18 square, 



62 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN GREECE. 



and the weights 7 and 7 J pounds to the 24-yard piece, but some 
heavier grades are used in smaller quantities. The 30-inch, 16 square, 
is now retailing at 14 drachmas a piece, say 11 J cents a yard, and the 
32-inch, 18 square, at 16 drachmas a piece, say 12.9 cents per yard. 
Consular reports from Greece have made reference to a " Howell " 
cloth. This is a T cloth called after one of the most popular makes. 
In the same way the buyer here often calls for " Croydon " or " Hor- 
rockses " cloth, meaning the brand of white shirting. In Turkey 
the import list does not specify " sheetings," but calls all sheetings 
" Cabots." 

DRILLS, FLANNELS, AND WORSTEDS. 

A fair amount of white drills are imported for summer suits and 
other purposes. These are mainly the 28-inch, 20 by 17, goods, re- 
tailing at a drachma a pic, or about 27.8 cents per yard. Cotton 
flannel is proportionately a fairly large import, though it is only 
about $75,000 a year. England supplies the best qualities and Ger- 
many the cheaper, but Italy, with her cheaper freight and longer 
terms, is making efforts to control trade in this line. Cotton worsteds 
are imported from Germany, usually in about 48 -inch double widths, 
and have a good sale. Hollands are imported in large quantities. The 
retailers here call almost any light-weight colored goods " Hollands," 
whether striped only or whether checked or of a solid pattern. 
Coarse colored cottons, such as cottonades and cotton trouserings, 
checks, and stripes, ginghams, etc., are made by the local mills, but 
the lighter goods, made of dyed yarn and generally lumped as " Hol- 
lands " by the merchants, are nearly all imported, mainly from Ger- 
many and England. 

Cloth is sold by the drachma per pic. The " pic " as used in Asia 
Minor is 27 inches, but in Greece the pic used for cloth measure is 
considered to be 64 centimeters, which is about 25 inches. 

GREEK TEXTILE TARIFF. 

The Grecian textile tariff is not levied ad valorem, but on both 
cotton yarn and cotton cloth is based a unit of weight of 100 
okes, which is equal to 282 pounds. The duty is levied in gold 
francs. Greece is one of the countries in the Latin Union, which 
includes France, Belgium, Spain, Italy, and Switzerland. Latin 
Union countries recognize a coin of the value of the French franc, 
equal to 19.3 cents, as standard. The United States paj^s the conven- 
tional tariff. The present tariff on textiles is as follows (in gold 
francs) : 



Description. 



Cotton 

Wadding per loo okes. 

Cotton yarn: a 

Under No. 24 do. . . 

Above No. 21 do... 

Bleached yarn: a 

Under No. 24 do... 

Above No. 24 do... 

« For twisted yarns add 20 percent to each subdivision of soft yarn. This docs not apply to con- 
ventional tariff countries. 



Genera] 

tarilT. 


Conven- 
tional 
tariff. 


Francs. 
Free. 
100 


Francs. 

Free. 


60 

80 

66 


60 

60 


88 


66 



COTTON TEXTILE TKADE IN GREECE. 



63 



Description. 



Colored yarn: a 

Under No. 24 per 100 okes. 

Above No. 24 do. . . 

Oil-dyed yarn, all numbers a do... 

Sewing thread .do... 

Gray goods: 

36 threads t> do . . . 

44 thread s ft do . . . 

56 threads b do . . . 

Bleached goods do. . . 

Colored and printed goods, not specially mentioned do. . . 

Colored goods, such as drills, stripes, and checks, for use of laborers do. . . 

Colored linings do. . . 

Lampwicks and boot tags do. . . 

Cotton belting 

Batistes, gauzes, muslins, and similar diaphanous goods per oke. 

Linen and embroidered articles do. . . 

Felts, cretonnes, satins, and piques do. . . 

Garters, ribbons, edgings, Indian and Spanish muslins above 56 threads, head 

handkerchiefs, socks, and remnants per oke. 

Cords, braids, etc. (if wool is not mixed in to increase value more than 30 per 

cent ) per oke . 

Cotton flannel, bleached or unbleached per 100 okes. 

Sail cloth do. . . 

Ready-made clothes: 

For men and boys, add to the regular duty on the cloth 

For women and children .per oke. 



General 
tariff. 



Conven- 
tional 
tariff. 



Francs. 



80 

'150 

70 

80 

80 

100 

120 



120 

Free. 



c40 
15 



a For twisted yarns add 20 per cent to each subdivision of soft yarn. This does not apply to con- 
ventional tariff countries. 
b Contained in a square of 5 millimeters side [millimeter=0. 03937 inch], 
c Per cent. 

It is seen that on the light cloths and on women's ready-made cloth- 
ing the duty is based on the oke, but on all others on the 100 okes. 
The duty runs from 3.4 cents to 13.85 cents a pound on cotton yarn, and 
from 4.79 cents to 41 cents a pound on cotton cloths. The duty on 
cotton seed and cotton-seed oil is 20 francs for 100 okes of 282 pounds. 

Besides the duty, all goods entering Greece have to pay port dues 
and octroi taxes. The port dues at Pirseus are based on the duty, 
being one-twentieth of the duty. The octroi or town tax on all mer- 
chandise entering Athens is levied at the rate of 2 per cent of the 
value. 

DIRECT STEAMSHIP LINES. 

In many parts of the world American commerce is hampered by the 
fact that there are no direct steamship lines. It should be empha- 
sized that there is no such drawback in regard to Greece, and that 
this market is now more accessible to New York than to Liverpool. 
From Liverpool freight is • delayed by the steamships touching at 
several intermediate points or by transshipment at Naples or Trieste ; 
therefore English freight takes from twenty to thirty days to reach 
Greece, as compared with eighteen days from the United States by 
the direct lines. The freight rate is also as low or lower from New 
York as from Liverpool. On cotton, for instance, the present (Octo- 
ber, 1907) rate per ton is 30s. from New York and 32s. 6d. from Liver- 
pool. The rate from New Orleans is still very high — about 40s. for 
cotton — but the Austro- American line is about starting a direct 
service there also, a monthly service being contemplated, so this rate 
will also shortly be lowered. 

There are now four direct lines between the United States and 
Greece, as follows: 

(1) The Trans- Atlantic Steamship Company, known usually as 
the Moraities Line. This line has but one steamship, but another is 
shortly to be added. It has a sailing about every fifty days and 
takes only eighteen days from port to port. 



64 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN GREECE. 

(2) The Austro- American Line. This is an Austrian line and has 
three to four departures a month from Patras, Greece. Hereafter 
about one boat a month will also be sent direct to New Orleans. 

(3) The Prince Line (English) operates two steamships on the 
American-Greece direct route, and its sailings depend on cargo — usu- 
ally about six departures a year. 

(4) The Fabre Line (French) operates three boats, making irregu- 
lar trips, depending on cargo available, but having five to six de- 
partures a year. 

Formerly steamship connections with the United States were very 
bad, nearly all freight was transshipped at one or more intermediate 
ports, the time was two months, and freight rates prohibitive. The 
new direct lines — especially the establishment of the Moraities Line — 
has put American goods on a competing basis in Greece, a fact which 
should be taken advantage of by American manufacturers. The 
growth, of this line will materially aid American commerce, for the 
reason that it not only runs direct to Piraeus, but it also goes on to 
Smyrna, giving New York the long-desired direct connection with 
Asia Minor. From Smyrna the route leads back to Piraeus and then 
direct to New York. At present these lines depend for their profits 
on the Greek emigrants, but if American shippers can fill the ships 
for the return trip freight rates will be further lowered and shipping 
facilities increased. 



ITALY 



65 



27703—08 5 



GROWTH OF MANUFACTURES, 

IMPORTANCE OF COTTON GOODS INDUSTRY. 

DECREASED IMPORTS AND INCREASED FOREIGN SALES LOCATION AND 

METHODS OF THE MILLS. 

Since 1902 the industries and manufactures in Italy have taken 
long strides forward, and to-day northern Italy has become one of the 
most modern manufacturing centers of Europe. The suddenness of 
the advance is instanced by the fact that of the 111 firms now manu- 
facturing automobiles and parts in Italy not one was operating under 
its present name in 1904, and the greater number are entirely new. 
The extent of the advance is evidenced by the fact that there is now 
more water power developed in Italy than in any country of the 
world, with the exception of the United States. 

Silk is the most important industry of Italy, employing some 
300,000 people, supplying one-fifth of the world's requirements, and 
Milan has succeeded Lyon as the world's largest silk center. The 
majority of the silk, however, is exported in only a partially manu- 
factured form. 

The greatest article of manufacture in Italy is cotton, and the 
product of the cotton mills forms by far the largest item in the list of 
manufactured goods exported. The progress of the cotton-manu- 
facturing industry has been remarkable. Formerly Italy imported 
all its clothing, mainly from England, with the exception of a small 
portion manufactured on the hand looms in the cottages. About 
1887 the present development began to get under way, and in the last 
twenty years it has gained steadily. 

At first only yarns were made for the hand-weaving industry, but 
later cloth of coarse kinds, and then finer goods of more variety were 
successfully started. As the manufacture of cotton goods increased, 
the imports of foreign manufactures steadily decreased, and to-day 
Italy supplies all its home requirements of cotton manufactures, 
with the exception of a few special qualities not consumed in large 
enough bulk to make their manufacture profitable, and it has also 
sent out its yarns and cloth in successful competition with England, 
Germany, and the United States to various parts of the world, par- 
ticularly to Argentina, Turkey, Egypt, and India. 

For the last twenty years (comparing the average of the years 
1886-1890 with the figures for 1906) the consumption of cotton 
increased from 145,011,298 to 384,410,660 pounds; the imports of 
cotton yarn have declined from 9,274,212 to 1,821,724 pounds; the 
exports of yarn have increased from 682,358 to 22,877,300 pounds; 
the imports of cotton goods have declined from 22,736,684 to 8,038,208 
pounds; while the exports of cotton goods have increased from 
1,429,514 to 61,744,840 pounds. 

67 



68 



COTTON TEXTILE TKADE IN ITALY. 



SPINNING SPINDLES AND POWEE LOOMS. 

To get exact figures in regard to the extent of the Italian cotton 
industry is impossible, Government figures being misleading, for the 
reason that cotton manufacturers are taxed on their output up to 20 
per cent or more of their receipts, and in order to do business under 
such circumstances the manufacturers claim that it is impossible to 
give exact returns. Therefore figures published by the Government 
in regard to this and other manufacturing industries are really only 
approximations, and necessarily underestimates. The latest figures 
published by the Government are contained in the Statistica Indus- 
trial, published in 1906, but which contains figures up to 1903 only. 
For 1903 they show 1,693,863 spinning spindles, 240,090 twister 
spindles, 60,325 power looms, 4,568 Jacquard looms, operated by 
138,880 workmen and using 86,992 horsepower. The cotton-mill 
men say that these figures, which were those given for taxation, are 
really at least 50 per cent underestimated even for that period. This 
also is proved by the fact that the Government returns for 1900 were 
1,879,129 spindles, 232,041 twisters, and 60,722 looms, or actually 
more than shown three years later, which is impossible in the face of 
the customs returns showing the increase of cotton and of cotton-mill 
machinery imported, and of cotton manufactures exported. 

The tax lists now being made up by the Government for the end of 
1907, I am informed from a reliable source, will show the spinning 
spindles and power looms now listed for taxation in the various 
provinces of the various sections as follows : 



Province. 



Milan 

Bergamo . 
Brescia. . 

Como 

Pavia ... 
Sondrio . 
Cremona. 



Total for Lombardv 



Turin 

Novara .- 

Alessandria 
Cuneo 



Spindles. > Looms. 



Province. 



Spindles. Looms. 



650,000 
500,000 
300, 000 
185, 000 
140, 000 
55, 000 



20,000 
10, 000 
5,000 
10, 000 
2,000 
5,000 
2,000 



Vicenza. 



Total for Venetia 



40, 000 



Salerno. 
Naples . 
Caserta. 
Bari 



1,850,000 54,000 



610, 000 

560, 000 

100, 000 

30, 000 



20, 000 

15,000 

5,000 



Total for Piedmont . . . . I 1 , 300, 000 1 40, 000 



Total for Campania . 



405, 000 



20, 000 



180,000 
60, 000 
30,000 



2,000 
5,000 
2,000 
2,000 



Catania 
Messina 



270,000 



11,000 



15.000 
5,000 



2,000 
5.000 



Total for Sicily. 



20, 000 



". 000 



Udine . 
Verona 
Venice . 



200.000 

120, 000 

45,000 



10,000 



10, 000 



Genoa. 
Massa . 



200,000 
35, 000 



10.000 
2,000 



G rand total 4, 060, 000 



144,000 



INDUSTRY CENTERED IN NORTHERN ITALY. 

Lombardy lies in the extreme north of Italy, with Milan for its 
capital; Piedmont, with Turin for its capital, occupies the extreme 
northwest, and Venetia the northeast; Liguria is the maritime sec- 
tion just south of Piedmont, with Genoa for its seat; Emilia is the 
section lying south of Lombardy, where the Italian peninsula joins 
the mainland, with Massa for its seat, and Campania is a southern 
compartment, with Naples for its head. It is seen that cotton mills 
are centered in the northern section, in the compartments of Lom- 
bardy, Piedmont, and Venetia, with a smaller number in Liguria 
and Emilia, represented by Genoa and Massa in the foregoing table, 
and that what manufacturing exists in the Italian peninsula is 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IX ITALY. 69 

around Naples. Of the provinces the most important are seen to be 
Milan Turin Novara. Bergamo, and Brescia. 

The Government and tie local authorities of southern Italy are 
now trying to extend the development of cotton manufacturing in 
that section and to this end land has been offered tree of cost for 
mUl sites taxes will be remitted for ten years and textile machinery 
for mills so locating will be admitted free of duty These induce- 
ment added to the fact that labor is much higher m the north 
than in the south, due to the greater demand for it will ^oubtedfr 
tend to gradually increase the number of mills in that section. The 
labor though cheaper, is less efficient, and the mills have to go to 
greater expense in other directions, and be more self-contained as 
they are farther away from the machinery import agents, the machine 
repair shops, the export firms, the dyeing and finishing establ sh- 
ments, Z, that have developed to such numbers m the mill centers 

Th^tax lists, as shown, give the number of spindles at 4,060,000 
and the looms at 144,000, but mill men say that even these figures 
Ire Zen underestimated, and that the number of spindles now in 
operation in Italy is over 5,000,000, and the power looms over lo0,000. 
Thev estimate the number of workmen at 250,000. The consump- 
tion of cotton in 1906 was 384,410,660 pounds, winch would be 
equivalent to 768,821 bales of 500 pounds each. 

SYSTEM OF MANUFACTURE ANP NUMBER OF MILLS. 

The cotton manufacturing industry of Italy is modeled after that 
of England, and the general custom is to have a separate mill tor 
each sta»e of manufacture. Thus there are comparatively few mi Is 
that buy the raw material and then ship the finished cloth to the 
store without assistance from some other establishment. One mill 
makes only yarn, another operates only twisters another does noth- 
ing but Weave, and others 'have only the machinery necessary for 
dyeing, or printing, or mercerizing, or bleaching. For instance, a 
mill at Turin has a clye plant, twisters, and looms, while a near-by mill, 
in the country, has nothing but carding and spinning machinery. 
The country mill runs the cotton through the lappers and cards, 
and sends the card sliver to the city mill, where it is dyed then 
carried back to the country mill and spun and the yarn returned 
to the city mill and woven into cloth. In some instances tour 
different mills are used for spinning, dyeing, weaving, and finishing 

th The°latest statistical list of the Cotton Industrial Association of 
Milan— that for 1906— gives the names and location of all cotton 
manufacturing establishments in Italy They make no attempt to 
give the figures for the spindles and looms . Their hst shows o30 
leparate companies, operating plants of all kinds to the number of 
656. Included in the 530 companies are two compames operating 
mills in South America, from headquarters m Milan. The first of 
these has a spinning and weaving mill at St. Paul, Brazil iiie 
other company has mills at Buenos Aires, Argentina, and at Salto 
del Ytu, San Koque, and Osasco, Brazil, as well as a mill at Castiez- 
zato in Italy. This last company was founded by a pioneer who 
inaugurated" Italy's export trade with South America, and uhe 



70 



COTTON" TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 



founding of mills in Argentina and Brazil was a natural develop- 
ment of this business. These mills are all run by Italian emigrants 
to those countries. 

DISTRIBUTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF ESTABLISHMENTS. 

The 530 companies employed in the various branches of cotton 
manufacturing are, according to the list, distributed as follows: 



Establishments. 


>> 

u 
c3 

o 


c 
o 

s 

CO 


.2 

M 

3 


.eg 

CD 


'5 

c3 

S 

O 


>> 
PI 

03 
O 
m 
3 
En 


.2 

'1 


CD 

a 

o 


o3 

"3 


>> 

S3 


c3 

O 
'5 

CD 

fi 

<< 

,d 

+^> 
3 
O 

m 


03 

O 


Spinning mills 


34 
8 
39 
168 
30 
11 
21 
14 


8 
3 
8 
24 
14 
4 

' V 


13 
1 
5 

11 
1 


6 
1 
2 

10 
4 


3 

1 
3 


1 
4 
1 












fif) 


Twisting 












18 
60 


Spinning and weaving 

Power looms 










2 


3 fi 


1 

4 


"2 


l 


1 


2S5 


Hand looms 


1 
1 
1 


26 




82 
16 
24 
24 
2 
14 


Powei and hand looms 








Dyeing, printing, bleaching, and mercerizing 


1 

3 


.... 


1 












Knit goods 














Sewing thread 






2 

1 












Others 


6 


2 


2 






2 


1 




















Total 


331 


70 


37 


23 


13 


42 


7 


3 


1 


1 


2 ."130 











It is seen that there are only 60 plants that combine both spinning 
and weaving to 225 that have only looms, 65 that are spinning mills, 
and 18 that operate only twisters; 24 plants are given as devoted 
to dyeing, printing, mercerization, and bleaching, one or all. In 
addition, of course, many of the yarn mills and the weave sheds 
have their own plants for dyeing, etc., in connection with their 
establishment. Also a good many of the spinning mills have their 
own twisters. There are shown 24 mills for making knit goods and 
2 sewing-thread mills. In addition to the two thread mills shown, 
there are two or three of the yarn mills that also make thread as well 
as yarn. The largest sewing-thread company is in Milan, which was 
formed by the amalgamation of several companies into one, and this 
company will in time probably absorb its competitors and have 
the monopoly of the manufacture of this article in Italy. Of the 
establishments not separately listed, 3 are for cleaning and manu- 
facturing flyings and other cotton-mill waste, 3 are for making anti- 
septic gauze, 2 for preparing cotton for use in the Government 
powder mills, and 2 are for making gauze and lace. 

EXTENSIVE USE OF HAND LOOMS. 

It will be noticed that in the list there are given 82 establishments 
as operating hand looms, and 16 as operating both hand and power 
looms. As labor gets higher the hand-loom industry will necessarily 
decrease, but at present it is a fairly profitable business in Italy. A 
large portion of their production consists of strongly made coarse 
goods for country wear — stripes, checks, etc. — and of cotton and 
linen cloths, of which there are large quantities made by both hand 
and power looms in Italy. The great bulk of the hand-woven prod- 
uct is colored goods. 

The hand looms also compete in other lines — in Jacquard work, 
in making cotton trouserings and mixtures, and, to a smaller extent, 
in fancy goods. In some mills the hand and power looms work side 



COTTON TEXTILE TKADE IN ITALY. 71 

by side. For instance, at a mill I visited at Chieri, near Turin, I 
found a modern plant of 150 looms running on colored goods, Oxfords, 
alpacas, trouserings, etc., and in the same establishment 20 wide 
hand looms, with Jacquard attachments, making Gross de Tours or 
figured bedspreads, and also 30 narrow hand looms running on the 
same goods as the power looms. In addition to these, the firm 
employs some 150 hand-loom weavers who work at home. The 
products of this mill, both hand and power, are exported, chiefly to 
Argentina. 

There are necessarily no figures available as to the exact number 
of hand looms in Italy. The Government estimate in 1903 of 4,206 
hand looms on gray work and 9,601 on colored work was simply 
those given in for taxation by the registered companies, and the 
Government estimate for hand looms worked at home was 60,025, 
making the total number of hand looms 73,832. The hand looms 
are scattered more or less throughout Italy, but of the registered 
companies the majority are in Lombardy, Tuscany, and Piedmont. 
In Piedmont the hand-loom industry centers around Chieri, a small 
town some 20 miles from Turin. In Chieri alone there are 14 com- 
panies operating hand looms and 3 operating both hand and power 
looms. In Lombardy the hand-loom industry is located around the 
big cotton-mill center of Busto Arsizio, and in Tuscany it is grouped 
in the small towns lying back of Pisa. 

COTTON-MILL DEVELOPMENT LACK OF RAW MATERIALS. 

At present Italy has a steadily expanding export trade in cotton 
goods, and her home demand is advancing still more rapidly, with 
the increasing prosperity of her people. This makes cotton manu- 
facturing in most lines very profitable. That hand looms still com- 
pete I regard as due to the facts that there are not enough cotton 
mills and that there is such a profit in manufacturing that even the 
hand looms, aided by the tariff, can compete for a share of it. In 
mills running both hand and power looms, the hand-loom weaver 
runs one loom only; the power-loom weaver runs two, and is paid 
much less per cut than the hand-loom weaver. That this continues 
shows the great demand there is for cloth, but it can not last longer 
than the time when the mills can obtain capital and get machinery 
delivered. Hand looms, therefore, will necessarily decrease, and only 
be retained for very coarse goods, and for cloths, such as bedspreads, 
etc., on which the speed is necessarily slow anyway. 

The great development of the cotton manufacturing business in 
Italy is all the more remarkable as the country supplies practically 
nothing but the labor. Italy has neither iron, coal, nor cotton. All 
of the iron for the mill buildings, nearly all of the machinery for the 
manufacture, all of the coal to drive the machinery, and all of the 
cotton to run through the machinery have to be brought thousands 
of miles, yet the mills are steadily increasing in number. Some 
machinery is now manufactured in Italy, but this amounts to a very 
small percentage of the requirements, and even in this case the iron 
is imported. 

The great increase of cotton mills since 1902, since which time they 
have more than* doubled, is due to various causes, among which may 
be noted that about that time the Italian Government declared its 
paper money on a par with and redeemable in gold — thus indicating 



72 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 

that its finances were on solid ground, which gave great impetus to 
all Italian industries — and the increasing foreign and home demand 
noted. 

NEW LAW AFFECTING WOMEN AND CHILDREN IN MILLS. 

In 1902 a law was passed, to take effect in 1907, prohibiting the 
night work of women and children in mills. The women and chil- 
dren form two-thirds to three-fourths of the operatives in Italian 
cotton mills. This law practically meant that the mills had to be 
doubled, and five years were accordingly allowed for the purpose. 
The purchase of the great quantity of new machinery required for 
this object, and to meet the ever-increasing demand, meant that the 
cotton mills had to raise large amounts of money, and this was some- 
what difficult, even in the space of five years, so that when the new 
law finally became effective, in June, 1907, it still found some of the 
mills unprepared. The mills were very prosperous in 1905 and 1906, 
which induced many new competitors to enter the field and, in some 
cases, the stock of these companies was quoted at high figures, even 
before the foundations for the walls had been laid. The prosperity 
has in great measure continued, but so much money has now been 
tied up in the new enterprises that it has made money tight in Italy, 
and it will be some- little while before the returns can come in. This 
has temporarily checked building, added to the fact that England is 
quoting eighteen to twenty-four months on delivery of machinery. 

MILL MACHINERY IMPORTS AND DOMESTIC PRODUCTION. 

During 1905 and 1906, Italy imported cotton-mill machinery to 
the value of $14,781,263. Speaking generally, the carding and spin- 
ning machinery used comes from England, the weaving machinery 
from Switzerland, and the dyeing and finishing machinery from Ger- 
many, while some, mainly napping machines, comes from France. 
England also sells a large amount of weaving machinery, but the 
majority of the Italian mills seem to prefer the looms from Zurich, 
especially for box work. The -great bulk of the textile machinery 
is imported, but recently Italian machinery manufacturers, who 
already make large quantities of water and steam turbines, steam 
engines and boilers, gas engines, dynamos, and electrical material, 
have branched out into the manufacture of cotton-mill machinery, 
mainly on warpers, reels, and plain box and Jacquard looms. These 
do not, as yet, manufacture looms in very large quantities, but the 
manufacture must be profitable, as a good many new companies are 
being formed for this purpose. 

The spinning frames used are, of course, all on the English style, 
with one leather-covered front roller, and uncovered, self- weighted 
middle and back rollers. Heretofore the majority of the mills have 
preferred mule spinning, but the new mills are installing mostly ring 
spinning. Three-fourths of the looms are of the overpick style. 

MOTIVE POWER USED AND CAPITAL INVESTED. 

In regard to the motive power, there are no very recent figures, 
but in 1903 the Government statistics show that of the 86,692 horse- 
power in that year, 43,834 was classed as steam, 35,705 as hydraulic, 
6,623 as electric, and 920 as gas and oil. There has been a great 
increase in all four lines since, but especially in theuse of electricity. 
The new mills in Italy are distinguished especially for the up-to-date 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 73 

use of armored cement in construction and of electricity in oper- 
ation. There has been a great increase in the use of hydraulic power 
among the mills situated so as to avail themselves thereof, especially 
those of Piedmont, where water power is very plentiful. Cardiff coal 
at present (November, 1907) costs at Turin 37 lire per 1,000 kilos 
($7.14 per metric ton), and as all coal has to be imported the mills 
using water power effect quite a saving. Gas and oil engines, which 
are a more recent arrival in the field, have been limited to small 
powers, but it is understood that some of the new mills are to be 
equipped with large units. 

The Government gives the capital stock of the mills as being about 
500,000,000 lire ($96,500,000); the yearlv wages paid as being about 
100,000,000 lire ($19,300,000). They state that about 23 per cent 
of the production is exported. 

MILAN THE CENTER OF THE COTTON INDUSTRY. 

The cotton manufacturing industry of Italy is centered at Milan, 
which is the industrial capital of Italy. From being one of the inte- 
rior cities, dependent on Genoa for its commercial life, its trade has 
become so large that Genoa no longer suffices as an entry way for its 
imports and exports, and Venice is also being developed for this pur- 
pose so that it may have two good outlets to the sea. The one rail- 
way line from Genoa has to go through tunnels to get out of Liguria 
and is so congested that it takes longer for goods shipped from the 
United States to come from Genoa to Milan than from New York 
to Genoa. There is now being projected a system of waterways 
whereby freight can go from Milan to Venice by boat, which will aid 
greatly in relieving the present congestion. Last winter some mills 
had to shut down or run short time on account of coal being delayed 
by the congestion of the railroads out of Genoa. 

• • • • 

Milan is now one of the most important industrial cities of Europe, 
and its importance is rapidly increasing as the export center for 
southern Europe. It is the headquarters of many cotton manufac- 
turing firms that have their mills elsewhere, is the headquarters for 
the commission firms and export houses, for the machinery agents, 
for the machine shops, and other agencies and industries connected 
with cotton manufacturing. The banks of Milan largely finance 
the industry, and the associations of both the employees and the em- 
ployers are located here. The latter, the Associazione fra gli Indus- 
trial! Cotonieri e Borsa Cotoni, publishes a monthly paper called the 
Bolletino, which gives news in regard to the Italian industry, strikes, 
changes in tariff, etc., and information in regard to the opportunities 
for cotton manufactures in foreign countries, paying special attention 
to all items from Argentina and Turkey. This association includes 
all the larger cotton manufacturers and acts as a general information 
bureau for the trade. 

Milan, though the center of the cotton-manufacturing business of 
the country, is not the largest mill town, and the bulk of the mills of 
Milan Province lie in the sfnall towns north of Milan itself. The 
cotton-mill towns seem to be Busto-Arsizio, Monza, Gallarate, Milan, 
Turin, Legnano, Bergamo, Salerno, and Novara. The cotton mills do 
not think it to their interest to publish any details of their size or 
equipment, so the number of spindles and looms at each point can not 
be stated, but undoubtedly Busto-Arsizio and Monza contain the 
largest number of mills. There are 42 cotton mills at Busto-Arsizio 



74 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 

(not counting hand-loom establishments), but of these only 3 spin. 
At Monza there are 25 weave mills and 3 spinning mills. The spinning 
mills are mostly in the county. 

ITALIAN DEMAND FOR FOREIGN COTTON GOODS. 

It is to be noted that the Italian people themselves do not know 
how far their cotton industry has advanced, and still demand foreign, 
especially English, goods. To meet this demand many Italian 
manufacturers put on foreign labels to suit. Monza, for instance, 
exports 6,000,000 felt hats a year, and supplies both felt and fine hats 
for the home trade, yet the buyer likes the English label. It is stated 
that some of the hats are really sent to England, marked, and returned. 
It is the same with other articles. " English derbies" come from 
Monza or Cremona, " English flannels/' bought in the Milan stores, 
come from Busto-Arsizio, " latest foreign novelties" from Alessandria, 
11 French shoes" from Naples, " French gloves" from Milan, " cham- 
pagne" from Asta, etc. The Italian manufacturers, therefore, study 
their home market as they do the foreign markets, and sell " English 
goods" to the Italian people, while they are selling " American 
Cabots" to the Turks, but all are made in Italy. Recently there has 
been quite a little written on this subject, and the Italians will proba- 
bly in time buy their own goods under their native name. 

The largest division of the goods made in Italy is comprised under 
the head of colored goods; gray goods come next, then printed goods, 
and then bleached goods. Among the main goods manufactured are 
napped goods, cotton flannel, flannelets, barchent, Oxfords, zephyrs, 
cotton trouserings, fustians, domestics, serges, Florides, Carolines, 
Mogador, sateens, shirting prints, Cabots (sheetings), shirting mix- 
tures, men's suitings in imitation of wool, merinoes, linings, buckram, 
cotton and linen cloths, piques, diagonals, bordered goods, lenos, 
table linen, reps, cretonne, Vichy (gingham), mercerized goods, 
Jacquards, Gros de Tours (bedspreads), towels, and handkerchiefs. 

CATERING TO FOREIGN MARKETS. 

The fact that the Italian mills cater to the demands of the buyer 
is one reason why they have been able to increase their business so 
rapidly both at home and abroad. In nearly all lines of cotton 
manufacture they entirely supply their home market, and no foreign 
goods can be imported in large quantities but the mills immediately 
start on its manufacture. Their foreign market has been built up 
by careful study and experiment. The export firms employ many 
travelers, and these keep the mills exactly informed as to the wishes of 
the buyers, and these wishes are deferred to, whether in regard to 
width and length of goods, marking, packing, or credit. Accus- 
tomed to long credit at home, these firms are equally ready to extend 
it abroad, and this fact has had a great deal to do with their supplant- 
ing other countries. They do not try to ship surplus goods to foreign 
markets, but make directly the goods that are required, and will take 
very small initial orders to start with. Their best markets are 
Argentina, Turkey, Egypt, India, and the Balkans. They also ship 
goods to other countries, including not only the Philippines, but some 
to the United States. 

Among the goods exported may be mentioned especially flannelets, 
barchent, Oxfords, zephyrs, mixtures, trouserings, Cabots, shirtings, 
sateens, Gros de Tours, towels, and handkerchiefs. 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 75 

The bulk of the cotton mills sell to the Italian stores through some 
intermediary agency, but a great many sell direct. Nearly every 
mill has its own designer, sometimes one to every 100 looms, and gets 
out books of new patterns every season — that is, twice a year — so that 
its customers can select in the spring for the fall goods and in the fall 
for the spring goods. Therefore when the Italian mills go after the 
foreign trade they never object to furnishing sample books, for that 
has been their regular custom at home. 

AGREEMENT GOVERNING HOME SALES. 

The terms of sale of different houses in the foreign business vary, 
and they have not yet come to any agreement among themselves on 
the subject. For the home trade, however, the terms of sale have 
become more definitely fixed, and the majority abide by the selling 
agreement rules of the Italian Cotton Association. This is only 
obligatory on the members of the association, but has become the 
regular custom for nearly all. This selling agreement, approved by 
the council of directors, January 15, 1907, is as follows: 

Article 1. For cotton textiles in the gray, unless otherwise specifically stated, it 
is tacitly understood that the yarns must be stated according to the English number- 
ing, and that the quantity of threads be given per centimeter or per quarter inch. 
By quarter inch in this case is meant a quarter inch French, unless otherwise spe- 
cifically stated. 

Art. 2. In the shipment of gray goods there will be made the following allowances: 
(a) Three per cent, more or less, upon the established quantity of the shipment, 
when it does not run above 2,000 pieces; 2 per cent upon shipments running up to 
5,000 pieces; and 1 per cent on shipments of more than 5,000; (5) 4 per cent upon 
pieces of irregular width; (c) if in the contract of sale the length of the pieces is indi- 
cated with a single number, the advantage of regular width is to be accorded to pieces 
which do not vary more than 3 per cent from the indicated number. If the length 
is indicated in two numbers, the allowance will be calculated on the average length; 
(d) 1 per cent on the width of the goods; (e) upon the average weight of every ship- 
ment an allowance of 2 per cent based on the theoretical weight of the goods and of 5 
per cent upon the single pieces. When this allowance is exceeded, but when the 
difference in weight does not exceed by at most 1 per cent the average of the ship- 
ment, corrections may be made corresponding to the difference in weight between 
the allowance and the actual. Greater differences being established, other goods 
must be substituted. Allowances are made on single shipments and on fifteen days 
time. 

FILING OP CLAIMS AND EXCEPTIONS ALLOWED. 

Art. 3. Claims based on the quality of tne goods and upon the weight must be 
made within fifteen days from the receipt of the shipment, excepting cases where 
there exist hidden defects not apparent within that time. When such hidden defects 
appear they must be made the subject of claims under the general commercial laws 
within two days frorn the date of discovery. 

Art. 4. In the case of total or partial failure of deliveries within the time estab- 
lished by the contract of sale, the purchaser has the right to annul that part of the 
contract relating to the part of the shipment remaining undelivered, and to claim 
damages, determined by arbitration, always providing that the purchaser gives 
notice to the seller of such action in a registered letter or telegram, such notice being 
of not less than fifteen days. 

Art. 5. There are allowed four exceptions to the right of claim stated in the pre- 
ceding article, thus: Floods, extraordinary droughts in canals or rivers, disablement of 
principal machinery or transmission gearing, strikes up to forty-five days, and an 
additional exception is suspension of the railway service. All these causes must be 
proved by acceptable documents. These are considered cases of ''superior force" 
both for the seller and for the purchaser, and can not be claimed as ground for the 
cancellation of the contract, but only as suspending delivery. 

Art. 6. If the factories or stores of either the seller or the purchaser are destroyed 
by fire or by whatever other catastrophe of superior natural force, and are rendered 
incapable of effecting or receiving delivery or a partial execution of the contract of 
sale, and such period of incapability continues for more than three months, the con- 
tract may be canceled. The contracting party who requests the cancellation of the 



76 COTTON TEXTILE TEADE IN ITALY. 

whole or a part of the contract of sale, and by such cancellation retains in his hands 
a part of any moneys paid thereon, must indemnify the other party, and in such cases 
the parties may resort to the judgment of arbitrators to fix the measure of indemnity. 

CONDITIONS OF SALE, FORWARDING, AND PAYMENT. 

Art. 7. When the contract states nothing to the contrary, it is understood that both 
parties will tacitly accept the following agreements: (a) Goods to be marketable; (6) 
discount at 2 per cent; (c) payment at thirty days; (d) interest at 6 per cent; (e) 
shipment to the designated port, at the risk of the buyer; (j) shipment as a whole to 
go forward as nearly as possible in sections equal to the number of months between 
the execution of the contract and the date named as the termination thereof. If the 
termination of the contract is not fixed, it will be understood for the purpose of timing 
the shipments thereunder that it is to run for six months; (g) arrangements to be 
made not less than ten weeks prior to the going into effect of the contract; (h) the 
compromise clause, as formulated in the standard contract in use by the members of 
the Cotton Association, and the application of similar special regulations of the asso- 
ciation, will be understood. 

Art. 8. If the buyer does not dispose of the goods within the terms of the contract, 
the seller, previously giving fifteen days notice by wire or by registered letter, has 
the right to annul that part of the contract not carried out, and to reimburse himself 
with the differences in price existing at the termination of the contract, or to sell in 
the market one or more of the qualities of textiles named in the contract. 

Art. 9. In regard to the monthly shipments, it is understood that they shall take 
place on the day most convenient to the seller. For shipments divided within a 
given month iY is understood that they shall go forward as nearly as possible in con- 
signments equal to one for each week of the month. 

Art. 10. The contracting parties, for purposes of the contract, will consider the 
residence of the seller as their legal domicile, in the absence of special provisions to 
the contrary. 

Art. 11. Payment must be made at the domicile of the seller in legal tender. 

Art. 12. The seller may suspend shipment, under any and every contract, in con- 
sideration of a tardy buyer, unless the contract contains special provisions to the con- 
trary. And without such special provisions the tardy buyer will have no rights for 
claiming an indemnification of damages. 

These rules are good also for domestics sold in standard makes, but for these sales 
there are excluded articles 1 and 2 e, and the allowance named in article 2 a, because 
it is usual to ship these in the precise quantity contracted for. 



COTTON MILLS. 

DETAILS OF OPERATING METHODS. 

PRODUCTS OF A SUCCESSFUL MILL NEAR NAPLES EQUIPMENT ONE 

OF THE BEST IN ITALY. 

Spinning mills and weaving mills in Italy are generally erected 
separate. For spinning mills the figures as given me by various 
manufacturers vary from 60 to 75 lire ($11.50 to $14.50) per spindle. 
For a weave shed the cost per loom was given as about 800 lire, 
which is $154, but this depends so much on the number of looms and 
what amount of preparatory machines, such as slashers, cop winders, 
etc., and what finishing machinery, such as starching machines, 
brushers, shearers, etc., are included that this is not very definite. 
For weaving alone the total cost of shed is figured at 600 lire or $116 
a loom. 

The most successful cotton manufacturing compan} T , as well as one 
of the oldest in southern Italy, is located at Salerno, near Naples. 
The two mills owned by this company run on rather finer goods than 
the majority of Italian mills and their goods have a wide reputation. 
They make mostly for the home trade. This company has 40,000 
spindles, 450 looms, and 12 printing machines. The output is mostly 
fine goods, using 30s to 50s yarn, especially white shirting, fine striped 
shirting, gingham, dobby goods specialties, and flannelets. 

American cotton only is used for the fine goods, some Indian cotton 
is mixed in for the flannelets, and Egyptian cotton is sometimes used 
for stripe effects on the specialties. Most of the machinery is from 
England, but the majority of the looms were from Switzerland, and 
the manager stated that he preferred these to any English make, being 
made stronger and the box motion being better. 

This mill is one of the best equipped in Italy and relies on itself for 
everything; in fact, has to do so, as it is situated away from the ma- 
chinery centers. The engine used in the dyehouse was designed cast, 
finished, and put together at the mill. A large foundry and machine 
shop is also attached. The mill bleaches, dyes, and prints. A differ- 
ent bleach is of course used for cloths to be printed and those to 
be sold as white goods, the former having to be more thorough. 

The engines and boilers are Swiss, and all coal is brought from Eng- 
land, the mill buying large quantities at a time and at present paying 
35 francs ($6.75) a ton. The mill is lighted by gas, with open gas jets 
above each loom, and it is curious to note that, as stated by the mana- 
ger, the insurance companies give them a lower rate on gas than they 
would on electric lights. The gas plant is owned by the mill. There 
is also a small dynamo, but it is only used to charge accumulators so as 
to light the houses of the proprietor and the overseers at night. The 
mill does not work at night. 

77 



78 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 

CALICO DESIGNING AND PRINTING. 

This mill makes its own copper rollers for printing, makes its own 
designs and patterns, engraves the rollers, and then does the printing. 
In making the printing patterns on the copper rollers from designs 
three methods are used. The first method is to put the copper roller, 
which is some 6 inches in diameter by 36 inches long, into a lathe and 
turn the pattern on it by means of a tracing point guided by an iron 
design, but such designs are limited in their scope and too regular in 
their pattern. Another method is to engrave one repeat of the pat- 
tern, or a section of a repeat, on a small "mill" made of harder mate- 
rial than the roller, and then to set this in the lathe and press the pat- 
tern into the copper roller therewith. The slowest but finest method 
is to engrave the large rollers by hand, and sometimes six months are 
taken by a skilled ' workman to finish one design in this way. One 
roller is used for each color, so a six-color pattern will require six roll- 
ers. Some of the sketches made up by the designers are very artistic. 
The engravers are also highly skilled men. The rollers for putting a 
glazed-line finish on the cloth, also made here, have lines running 
slantwise around the rollers, but so fine they can not be seen with the 
naked eye. x 

After printing the colors are fixed by the "cottage system" of 
steaming. The cottage steamer consists of a large cylindrical iron 
chamber, 10 feet in diameter, similar to a boiler in shape. The front 
of the steamer is provided with a strong iron door, which is raised to 
allow the carriages containing the pieces to be rolled in and out on 
rails. The door is fastened by strong screws, so that after the car- 
riage is rolled in and the door shut the chamber is steam tight. Pres- 
sure used is about 30 pounds. There has also been installed a new 
continuous steaming machine. This mill also has quite a variety of 
old and new machinery for soaping and fixing, bleaching, etc. It does 
not do its own mercerizing, but sends the yarn to Milan, where it is 
mercerized and returned. 

WIDE-AWAKE BUSINESS METHODS OPERATIVES AND WAGES. 

One of the main lines made by this mill is napped goods, especially 
printed flannelets and barchent, the first being napped on both 
sides, and the latter hard finished on the outside and napped on the 
underside. Patterns for these goods are sent out in the spring and 
made up in the summer for fall delivery, while patterns for light 
goods are sent out in the fall and made up in the winter for spring 
delivery. The designers of this mill are steadily at work all the 
time getting out new patterns and designs. This company has its 
own printing establishment, prints and binds its own pattern books, 
and has a staff of men to cut out and insert the samples, and sends 
carefully packed small wooden boxes containing different sample 
books to all its principal customers. 

This company employs some 2,000 operatives, and the wages of 
the bulk of the employees average about 1| francs, say 30 cents, a 
day of eleven hours. At the gate office the company has a large 
board with hooks, from which are suspended numbered brass tags. 
Each workman is known by number, and as he comes in he takes 
his tag with him and replaces it when he leaves, so at any time the 
clerk can tell at a glance what numbers are absent. This mill has 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 



79 



no tenement houses, and most of the employees are natives of the 
district, owning their own houses or else boarding in crowded flats in 
the neighboring town. 

EQUIPMENT AND OUTPUT OF A MILL IN MILAN PROVINCE. 

A mill that was built last year in a small town in Milan Province 
paid the following for the main textile machinery used, the prices 
being f. o. b. ship at Manchester: 



Machinery. 


Cost. 


Machinery. 


Cost. 


1 pneumatic opener 


$1,475 
667 

16, 497 
4,380 
2,803 


5 intermediates, 144 spindles 


$5, 596 
11,972 


2 scutchers 


12 fine frames, 180 spindles 


30 cards 


4 self-actings (mules), 1,000 spindles, If 
inches 




9 draw frames, 10 deliveries each 


6,229 

18,687 


3 slubbers, 96 spindles 


20 ring frames, 400 spindles, 2f inches 



The scutchers and cards were for laps 40 inches wide. The cards 
had 102 flats, 1| inches center to center, with 50-inch cylinder and 
24-inch doffer. The draw frames were made double — that is, five 
heads facing one way and five the other. The slubbers had f-inch 
spindles, 4 in 20| inches, and the bobbins were 10 inches by 6 inches. 
The intermediate had 8 spindles in 25 | inches and bobbins were 10 
by 4^ inches. The fine frames had 8 spindles in 20^ inches and bob- 
bins were 7 by 3^ inches. The mules were of 1,000 spindles each, 
if inches center to center. The ring frames were of 400 spindles 
each, spaced 2f inches center to center, with 1 f-inch rings and 5-inch 
traverse. The numbers made by this mill are mostly 20s to 30s, and 
the production was some 6,000 pounds of yarn per 10^-hour day 
using some 14 bales of American cotton per day. 

WEEKLY WAGES OF EMPLOYEES. 

The regular weekly wages in American currency, based on the rate 
per day, except as stated, were about as follows: 



Employees. 


Per week. 


Employees. 


Per week. 


General personnel: 

1 manager, here called director, at 
15,000 lire a year 


$57. 90 
19.30 

17.85 
2.32 

3.38 
2.32 
8.11 
5.82 

16.21 
2.90 
4.63 
2.90 


Card room — Continued. 

2 slubber tenders, at 2 lire each 

4 intermediate tenders, at 2 lire each 
9 fine-frame hands, at 2.25 lire each. . 
2 roving carriers, at 2 lire each 

Total, card room 


$4.63 
9.26 


1 bookkeeper at 5,000 lire a year . . . 
1 clerk at 5 lire, and 3 clerks at 3.5 
lire each 


23.45 
4.64 


1 gatekeeper at 2 lire . . 


85.40 


1 night watchman at 2.5 lire a night 
(7 nights) 


Spinning room: 

1 foreman at 6 lire . . 




1 Sunday watchman at 2 lire 

2 boiler-room men, at 3.5 lire each. . 
1 engineer at 5 lire 


6.95 
5.79 


1 assistant in charge of mules at 5 
lire 


1 machinist at 6 lire, and 2 assist- 
ants at 4 lire each ' 


2 mule spinners, at 5 lire each 11. 58 

4 mule threaders, at 3 lire each 13. 90 


1 waste packer at 2.5 lire 


2 carriers and oilers, at 3 lire each . . 6. 95 


1 roll coverer at 4 lire 


1 rope binder at 3 lire 


3.47 

9.26 
50.95 
23.16 
4.63 
5.79 
2.61 


1 general utility man at 2.5 lire 


2 assistants on ring spinning, at 4 


Total, general personnel 


143. 64 


20 female spinners, at 2.2 lire each. . 


Card room: 


6.95 
3.47 

11.58 
5.79 
8.68 
6.95 


4 apprentices, at 1 lire each 


1 foreman at 6 lire 


2 banders and oilers, at 2.5 lire each 
1 baler at 2.25 lire 


1 assistant at 3 lire . . 


Picker-room force, 3 men, at 2.5 lire 
each 

1 card grinder at 5 lire 

3 carders, at 2.5 lire each 


Total, spinning room 

Total wages, entire mill 


145. 04 


374. 08 


3 draw-frame tenders, at 2 lire each . 





80 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 

A TYPICAL MODERN MILL. 

The largest number of mills collected at any one point in Italy is 
at Busto-Arsizio, in Lombardy, a village some 28 miles north of 
Milan that consists of nothing but cotton mills and dwellings for 
operatives. It has 42 mills, only 3 of which are yarn mills, as the 
latter are mostly situated in the country, where labor is cheap, and 
especially where water power can be obtained, while the weave sheds 
mostly gather in groups, so as to avail themselves of the common 
dyeing, bleaching, and finishing establishments. 

The new Italian cotton mills are especially distinguished by their 
use of armored concrete in construction and of electricity in opera- 
tion. The newest mills are equipped with every modern improve- 
ment, and, as the majority of the Italian mills are comparatively 
new, this gives them an advantage over some other countries where 
the industry has been longer established. 

One of the finest of the new mills I examined had just been com- 
pleted. It has 15,000 spindles and 500 looms, and is to increase its 
spinning capacity as soon as it can get machinery delivered. It 
uses 11 bales of American cotton a day, and runs on 20s to 28s, 
with a smaller amount of coarser yarns. 

The mill compound is walled in, with the office at the gate. The 
spinning occupies one building and the weaving another. The 
building for the spinning mill is three stories high, with flat tar and 
gravel roof. The main feature of the building is the use of concrete. 
Inside and out one sees cement only. The brickwork and all ironwork 
are concealed by cement, and there is no woodwork. The window 
frames and sashes consist of flat strip iron with narrow 5 by 20 inch 
panes of glass. Except for the windows, no ironwork is seen any- 
where. The ceiling inside shows a flat cemented finish broken up 
into panels by the 8-inch-square .cement beams supported by cement- 
covered columns. The mill is absolutely fireproof and no sprinklers 
are used, but there is a water system consisting simply of pipes 
running up the wall at the corners with lines of fire hose attached. 

DIRECT MOTOR-DRIVEN MACHINERY ARRANGEMENT OF MILL. 

Next to the use of cement, the feature that strikes one in the spin- 
ning room is the absence of overhead work. Usually a cotton mill 
has overhead a network of shafting, belting, sprinklers and connec- 
tions, heating pipes, etc., but here there was no obstruction whatever, 
except a few straight lines of heating pipes, and the absence of over- 
head work makes a very neat looking room. The establishment is 
operated entirely by electricity, a dynamo of 500-kilowatt power 
being used, of which the spinning mill absorbs 160 and the remainder 
is used for the weave shed, lighting arrangements, for machine shop, 
pumping, etc, A direct connected motor on an elevated platform 
drives the main overhead shaft for the card room, but for the spinning 
room each of the 400 spindle frames has a separate direct connected 
motor. The frames are set crosswise of the mill. The columns are- 
spaced 5 meters (meter=3.28 feet) between bays, and there are 
seven bays, so that the mill is about 115 feet wide, which gives 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 81 

room to set two frames with their motors at the end and have plenty 
of passageway. Lengthwise of the mill the columns are spaced 
7 meters from center tc center. The frames run remarkably steady, 
and it is claimed that a much greater production can be obtained 
than with belts, which I think Las been the experience in the United 
States. 

On the first floor of this mill are the scutchers and the card-room 
machinery. On the second floor is situated the ring spinning, and on 
the third floor are the mules, with space for others to be installed 
later. As usual, one end of the mill is divided by a wall, and at this 
end, on the third floor, are stored bales of cotton. On the second 
floor there are bins, where 100 bales of cotton are kept opened up all 
the time and where the oldest mixing is laid on the long lattice of an 
opener and then carried down through a dust flue to the breaker on 
the first floor. It goes through two scutchers, and the laps are carried 
thence into the card room. There are 30 cards with 37^-inch flats. 
Like all the other carding and spinning machinery in this mill these 
are from England. 

SPINNING AND WEAVING PROCESSES. 

There are used three processes of drawing, with leather-covered 
rolls and mechanical stop motion. The roving processes consist of 
three 96-spindle slubbers, four 144-spindle intermediates, and nine 
fine frames of 180 spindles each. For roving to be used for 12s 
yarn the numbers are 0.5, 1, and 2.5 hank, respectively, for slubber, 
intermediate, and fine frame, and for ,roving to be used for 28s the 
corresponding hank numbers are 0.8, 2, and 5, respectively. 

The direct-connected electric drive enables the frames to be run at 
a good speed, and the spinner gave the speed of front roll of the ring 
frames on 20s as 155 revolutions per' minute and of the mules on 12s 
and 16s as 170 revolutions. The ring frames were of 400 spindles 
each and the mules of 1,000 spindles each. 

The weave shed is a one-story building, with yarn storage room and 
warp-preparing machinery at one end. The weave shed, like the 
spinning mill, is of cement construction throughout, with cement 
floor. The roof is the usual saw-tooth style used throughout Italy. 
The looms are of different makes, but mostly English. They are both 
narrow and wide intermingled, so that a weaver would not have all 
the same. There are a few dobbies, but most were plain and box 
looms, all being overpick style. Some have the English revolving 
shuttle box, but most use the ordinary up-and-down style. The 
products are mostly cheviots, chambrays, trousering, and plain wides, 
gray, and bleached. Both bleaching and dyeing are done by an 
outside establishment. 

WAGES OF SPINNERS AND WEAVERS. 

In the card room wages are as follows: Picker-room hands get 2 
to 3 lire a day (lira = 19.3 cents), carders get 2 J lire, and 3 carders and 
1 card grinder run the 30 cards. Draw-frame tenders get 2 lire a day. 
Slubber tenders -get 10 centessimi (about 2 cents) a hank, and the 
intermediate and fine frame tenders in proportion, so that their wages 

27703—08—6 



82 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 

per day vary between 2 and 2.5 lire. On the spinning frames girls 
run from one to two sides, and are paid by the production, but wages 
average about 1 lire per 200 spindle side. For the 15,000 spindles 
there are 12 doffers, each under an assistant, the doffers getting 1.25 
lire per day. 

Prices for weaving vary, so that figures without samples are of 
little value, but on the plain wides of 140-centimeters (55.12 inches) 
width the weavers get 5i centessimi (1.06 cents) a meter (39.37 inches), 
and cuts run 50, 100, and 120 meters in length. On the narrow goods 
up to 75 centimeters (29.53 inches) the price averages about 3^ cen- 
tessimi (0.68 cent) a meter. The wide looms are run 135 to 150 picks 
per minute, and the narrow looms 180 picks a minute. These prices 
correspond to about 1 cent a yard for 68-pick goods 55 inches wide, 
and about 0.6 of a cent a yard for 48-pick goods 30 inches wide. The 
weavers, therefore, make 2 to 2\ lire a day, a few getting as high as 3 
lire: 

A TURIN FANCY WEAVING MILL. 

Another fancy weave mill at Turin has 320 looms, and is one of the 
most complete and up-to-date mills in Italy. The mill buildings them- 
selves are not new, but most of the looms are of recent design, and use, 
as do practically all the Italian mills, the system of harness and card 
operation that was invented by an Italian and, after being declined 
by an American textile machinery company, was bought by a Swiss 
firm at Zurich. This mill dyes, mercerizes, bleaches, twists, weaves, 
and finishes. 

Part of the operations incident to cotton manufacturing are carried 
on in an outside mill, located in the country near Turin, as this mill 
does not card or spin. It is interesting to note that this mill dyes 
the sliver, however. The country mill dumps each can of card 
sliver, as made, into a burlap sack of the same size as the card can 
and sews this up. This is sent to the Turin mill and the roving, sack 
and all, is immersed in the wooden dye vats. These vats are made of 
2-inch plank, and are some 3 feet square by 8 feet long. The sack 
and its contents are then put, with some hundreds of others, in a big 
drying chamber and left for three to five days to dry. They are then 
carried back to the country mill, opened up for the first time, and the 
roving run, as usuaf, through the drawing and other processes. Ity 
varying the colored ends on the draw frames an infinite variety of 
colors can be produced, especially colors in imitation of wool. This 
mill makes a specialty of cotton cloths in imitation of wool. Re- 
cently, to save the long time required to dry the dyed roving in sacks, 
the manager of this mill has had built a peculiar drying machine, 
and the slivers are run through and coiled in the sack again at the 
other end. The movement is slow, but, as a great number of ends 
are run through at once, it is a great deal faster than the old method. 

Roving is also bought from the country mill in numbers down to 
halves on the speeder bobbins. These bobbins of roving are placed 
in the twister and run through with a strand of fine yarn, say 20s, to 
give requisite strength for weaving. Sometimes only the fine thread 
is sized, and the soft coarse yarn thus prepared is used to make wool- 
barred effects on the loom. Various other kinds of fancy and irregular 
yarns arc used to produce certain effects on the cloth, mostly in the 



COTTON TEXTILE TEADE IN ITALY. 



83 



way of stripes and cross-barred effects. The following shows some of 
the fancy }^arns used for this purpose : 








Classes of yarns used in Turin fancy weaving mill. 



PREPARATION OF THE YARN. 

The regular yarn used is all bought in the skein. Part of it is 
bleached in the usual way by steaming in a closed kettle, passing 
through a hydrochloric acid bath and then drying in a hydro-extrac- 
tor. Yarns to be dyed are steamed in a closed cylindrical kettle and 
then dyed by hand in the wooden vats. Dyers are paid 3 lire a day. 
Yarns to be mercerized are put on stretching rollers on the ends of 
the spokes of a German revolving mercerizing machine. The yarn is 
kept tightly stretched, and is revolved through a succession of caustic 
soda baths and cleansing baths of water. After bleaching, merceriz- 
ing, or dyeing, as the case may be, the skeins are carried into the dry 
room, where they are hung in rows on the arms of a big j enny revolv- 
ing around a vertical center and exposed to a hot blast for three or 
four hours. This is for yarn to be used for filling. 

The warp skeins are sized in a skein sizing machine, in which the 
skeins are simply placed on two revolving rollers, which carry the 
skeins round and round through the sizing and squeeze rollers take 
off the superfluous size. These skeins are placed on the arms of a 
big swift revolving horizontally in a closed drying chamber and ex- 
posed for several hours to a hot blast until dry. All of the warp 
used at this mill is thus sized in the original skeins without unwinding 
and the results seem very uniform and satisfactory. The warp skeins 
then go to the spoolers, where each skein is placed on a separate swift 
resting on open bearing under the machine, and the yarn goes up 
and is wound on spools that revolve horizontally on skewers resting on 
open supports. The skewers are revolved by friction with a larger 
smooth pulley underneath, and for this purpose the end of the 
skewer in contact with the pulley is made of about 1-inch diameter 
and some f-inch face. Any spool is stopped by lifting the skewer 
from contact with the wheel, and there is a separate wheel for each 
skewer to rest upon. In the case of filling the skeins are placed 
around swifts underneath the machine, as before, and the yarn goes 
up and is wound on inverted paper cops. The paper tube is fitted on 
a revolving spindle, and around each are three small, loosely revolv- 
ing cones, which give the required shape to the cop. Where it is 
desired to wind from spoofs to cops the spool is placed on a skewer 
and substituted for the skein swift in the supports underneath. 



84 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 

On the twisters, where the yarn is doubled, the two ends are always 
run around the top roller and brought back around a glass pin and 
then under the top roller again and down to the twister bobbin. 
Usually to equalize the tension only one end goes back to the glass 
pin and 'the other goes straight down and joins it as it goes under 
the roll the second time. 

YARN PRINTING AND BEAM WARPING. 

Yarn printing is performed on a small machine, where the skein is 
stretched evenly over three fluted rollers, one of the rollers being 
loosely laid in the framework of the machine and series of slots allow- 
ing it to be placed in varying positions, according to the different 
length of the hanks. The printing roller is inside the hanks of yarn 
and is furnished with an ordinary color box and furnisher, while on 
the outside of the yarn is a pressure roller, and between these two 
rollers the yarn passes and is printed. The printing roller, with its 
furnishing roller, etc., is carried on a swinging framework, to enable 
the yarn to be readily put in and taken out of the machine. The 
printing rollers are engraved, with the lines of the engraving running 
spirally around it to avoid the jumping that might be produced if the 
ridges were straight. This printed yarn is some of it used as printed 
and some run through on the twister with one or more ends of some 
other color on the twister to give various combinations. 

The yarn being already sized as it comes to the beam warper, it is 
necessary for many ends to be run on the warp beam, as this beam 
in this case goes straight to the loom. It would not be convenient, 
even if possible, to run 3,500 ends on a beam at once from a creel, so 
the beam is built up in sections, on the German or English style. 
The English style is to run each creel of 500 spools on to a narrow 
warp beam, about 6 inches between heads, and then these narrow 
beams are slid on a shaft together to make up the required number 
of ends, but the heads have to be removed from each, and this is 
troublesome. The German style is preferable, as being better and 
giving less trouble. The creel is made up of possibly 500 ends, and 
these run on a regular length loom beam with one movable end. The 
beam is so arranged that it can be slid any desired distance in its 
supports. Thus 500 spools are wound off on to this beam in a dis- 
tance of 6 inches. The head is slid 6 inches farther to the right and 
the beam 6 inches farther to the left, the creel refilled and another 
500 spools wound off, as before. This is continued until all seven 
cheeses have been wound on side by side, when the movable head is 
firmly fastened and the beam goes to the drawing-in hands,. For 
drawing-in two girls work together, and they are jointly paid 20 cen- 
tessimi (3.86 cents) per 1,000 ends for four-harness work, and other 
harness work in proportion. 

LOOMS AND WEAVING PRICES. 

This mill uses the Honegger loom as made at Zurich, and prefers it 
to the English looms. This system is really a kind of dobby, with a 
pattern card, and allows of quite a variety of patterns. About half 
the looms have the Jacquard attachment, and the mill designs its 
own patterns, which are mostly variations of woolen cloth patterns, 
as the goods produced are mainly imitations of woolen goods. Prac- 
tically all the looms were making split goods — that is, the goods were 



COTTON TEXTILE TKADE IN ITALY. 85 

woven 125 centimeters wide, with a split mark down the center, and 
afterwards split into two 62-centimeter widths in the cloth room. 

These wide looms were run 140 picks per minute, and weavers were 
paid by the cut of 35 or 40 meters. Weaving prices vary for each 
variety of these fancy goods, but they are arranged so that a good 
weaver will make about 3 lire a 10^-hour day running two looms. 
Thus, on the average 36-inch pick goods, 125 centimeters (49 inches) 
wide, the price per 40-meter cut is 1.5 lire, or about 29 cents. This 
makes the weaving cost of the finished goods, 24-25 inches wide, 
about 14 J cents per 40-meter cut, or about one- third of a cent a yard. 
The mill bases this on 70 per cent production, and anything over the 
required amount is paid for in proportion. The cloth is finished and 
burnished with silk effect or else napped. 

This mill for 320 looms uses three designers, and they make up 
and send out to their customers about 150 new patterns every sea- 
son. Artificial silk is used for ornamental effects in some of the 
designs, some of which have been sold in New York. 

COMBINED HAND AND POWER LOOM ESTABLISHMENT. 

There are sixteen or more cotton mills in Italy that operate both 
hand and power looms. Several of these are located at the little 
village of Chieri, near Turin, and this place is the center of the hand 
weaving in Piedmont. 

One of these mills at Chieri operates 150 power looms of Swiss 
make and in the same establishment 20 wide and 30 narrow hand 
looms, and also employs some 150 hand-loom weavers that work at 
home. This mill makes mostly Oxfords, trouserings, striped drills, 
cotton, and linen goods, and also bedspreads, colored goods m general, 
and fancy- woven vestings. There is no spinning, and the yarn is all 
bought in the hank. The filling is wound off on cops ready for weav- 
ing. The warp is wound from the skein on spools and these spools 
placed in a creel and mill warped. 

The warping mill consists of a large reel of about 15 yards circum- 
ference, which is made to revolve. This reel is fixed upright in a 
framework, and the ends from the spools, after passing through the 
eyes of the heck, are wound around the reel. This heck is so con- 
structed that one half of the ends can be raised above the other 
half and a lease taken when desired. The heck slides up and down 
the framework of the mill and thus forms a traverse and distributes 
the warp as the reel revolves. As the reel revolves the heck slowly 
rises, and so causes the warp to be wound on the reel without over- 
lapping. The heck is moved up and down a sufficient number of 
times to give the required number of ends in the warp when the warp 
is cut off and unwound, being made up by hand in a warp chain. 
The creel of these old-fashioned warp mills are turned by hand wheels, 
but small motors had been attached to two of them and the others 
were to be so fixed later. After dyeing and sizing the warp goes to 
the loom. 

Some of the warp is bought by this mill already sized in the skein. 
In this case the skeins are wound off on spools and these placed in 
the creel of a sectional warper. The machine winds the ends into 
what are in England called " cheeses," from the similarity of the sec- 
tion to a whole cheese. They are really transverse sections of an 
ordinary weaver's beam. The cheeses are then put on a beam, and 



86 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 

the whole is rewound on the weaver's beam by means of a " windings 
off'' machine. The girls that work on the cop winders get 1.25 lire 
a day, and the warper girls get about 1.5 lire a da}^. 

EQUIPMENT, WAGES, AND OTHER DETAILS. 

The power looms are in a new building with steel saw-tooth roof, 
cemented walls, and wood floor. The floor is laid in thick oak blocks, 
4 by 12 inches in size, fitted into each other so as to give a very solid- 
feeling floor. All belting is in a cellar underneath, and there is no 
overhead shafting. Each weaver runs two looms, and is separated 
from the next weaver 'by an iron lattice, so there is no strolling up 
and down the weavers' alleys. The cuts are 30 and 35 meters 
(meter = 39.37 inches) in length, and mostly 28 to 32 inches wide. 
Looms are run at 170 picks a minute, and the tariff of wages is 
arranged for the different goods so that a two-loom weaver makes 
about 2 lire (39 cents) a day. 

The 30 narrow hand looms are running mostly on fancy vesting 
and dress goods, and run some 60 to 80 picks a minute and get 102 
lire a meter. These are operated by girls. The 20 wide looms are 
all fitted with Jacquard attachments and double boxes, and make 
u Gros de Tours," or figured bedspreads. These goods are 2 J to 3 
meters wide, and the weavers get 1J lire a meter. The working 
speed is about 40 picks a minute, and the weavers make such good 
wages that they only work about every other day. The work of 
running these heavy looms by foot power is very exhausting and only 
men can be employed. The hours at this mill are only 9§, starting 
at 8 o'clock in the morning, stopping from 12 to 1.30, and ending 
at 7. 

The cottage weavers work mostly on cotton and linen cloths and 
work very long hours. They make 2 to 2§ lire a day. The fact that 
hand-loom weavers work so much longer hours than the power- 
loom weavers is one reason why hand looms still compete in Italy. 

OTHER LARGE MILLS IN ITALY. 

The largest cotton manufacturing establishment in Italy is the 
Societa Italiana per l'Industria dei Tessuti Stampati, which has a 
capital stock of $3,860,000, employs about 6,000 work people, and 
operates 70,000 spindles, 4,000 looms, and 46 printing machines, be- 
sides 1,200 meters (4,000 feet) of tables of hand- printing work. 
This company well illustrates the growth and amalgamation that is 
going on in the Italian industry. The beginning of the mill was laid 
some thirty years ago when an intelligent, energetic young man 
rented a small building and started a' very modest dyeing and print- 
ing house for hand-woven goods, for the mechanical power of which 
an old horse was amply sufficient. Under his active, progressive 
management this small business gradually grew until it became a 
large mill, then absorbed other companies that were competing, 
until to-day this establishment represents 40 per cent of all the pro- 
duction of printed goods in Italy. 

Among the other largest companies may be noted the following: 
The four mills of the Cotonificio Cantoni at Castellanza, Legnano, 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 



87 



Besozzo, and Bellano give work to more than 4,000 operatives. The 
three mills of the Cotonificio at Biella, Occhieppo, and Migiiano give 
work to 3,700. The two mills of the Cotonificio Veneziano, at 
Venice and Pordinone, employ 3,000. The same number is em- 
ployed at the mills at Cazzaniga and Vertova of the Cotonificio de 
Valseriana. The three mills of the Manif attura Tosi at Busto-Arsizio, 
Castellana, and Novarra, employ 2,500, and the same number is 
employed by the three mills at Salerno, Angri, and Pellegrino. Two 
thousand operatives are employed at the three mills' at Capriate 
d'Adda, Ghemme, andBaveno; 1,700 at the two mills at Salerno and 
Nocera; and 1,500 are employed at the Cotonificio Torinese. 

Probably the largest number of spindles is owned by the Cotonificio 
Valle Seriana,. as they have 70,000 in the Cazzaniga mill and 55,000 
in the Vertova mill, or a total of 135,000. They also have 700 looms. 

FINANCIAL SHOWING OF LEADING MILLS. 

The following is a list of the large mills usually quoted on the Milan 
market, giving the capital, the dividends for 1905 and 1906, and the 
market value at various periods (1 lira =19.3 cents): f 



Name of mill. 



Tessuti Stampati 

Manifattura Tosi 

Cotonificio Bergamasco 

Cotonificio Muggiani 

Cotonificio Val d' Olona 

Cotonificio Cantoni 

Cotonificio Valle Seriana 

Cotonificio Veneziano 

Cotonificio Fiirter 

Cotonificio Busrese Ottolini 

Manifattura Rossari and VarzL. 

Lampugni, Gaio Abbiati 

Cotonificio Candiani 

Industria Cotoniera Carlo Crespi 

Cotonificio di Trovaso 

Cotonificio Cova 

C. Pacchetti & Co 



Paid-up 
capital. 



20 



Lire. 
, 000, 000 
, 000, 000 
, 000, 000 
, 000, 000 
, 000, 000 
, 000, 000 
, 000, 000 
, GOO, 000 
000, 000 
000, 000 
750, 000 
000, 000 
000, 000 
500, 000 
500, 000 
250, 000 
000, 000 



Nominal 
value of 
shares. 



Lire. 
250 
250 
250 
250 
200 
250 
250 
175 
250 
200 
250 
200 
200 
200 
250 
250 
100 



Dividend 
paid. 



Market value. 



1905. 1906. 1904. 1905. 1906 



Lire. 
16.00 
17.50 
15.00 
16.20 
10.00 
24.00 
20.00 
12.50 
15.00 



22.50 



Lire. 
20.00 
20.00 
17.50 
20.00 
15.00 
26.00 
25.00 
14.00 
12.50 
16.00 
25.00 
20.00 

6.25 
15.00 

6.50 
16.25 
12.00 



Lire. 
305 
374 
289 
325 



Lire. 
386 
360 
306 
332 



560 


556 


450 


454 


308 


264 


335 


316 


230 


306 




340 




250 


225 


150 




230 




300 




240 



Lire. 
370 
368 
330 
322 
268 
550 
455 
260 
285 
294 
390 
256 
148 
220 
230 
300 
232 



RING VERSUS MULE SPINNING COSTS. 



NEW MILLS GENERALLY BEING EQUIPPED WITH RING FRAMES. 

There have been several articles in Italian journals lately contrast- 
ing the advantages of ring and of mule spinning. For a good while 
the Italians followed the English custom of preferring mule spinning, 
but the new mills are being equipped mostly with ring frames, because 
of their saving in floor space and greater production at less cost. 
The spinning mills that are located at some distance in the country 
and sell on the cop still prefer the mule, because of the saving in 
weight effected by the smaller weight of the paper tubes over bobbins. 
The Italians call ring-spinning frames simply " rings," while mules 
are known as "self-actings," both terms being borrowed from the 
English. The articles referred to throw so much light on the cost of 
plant and operating expenses for "rings" and "self-actings" in Italy 
that they are translated and the gist of the articles herewith repro- 



88 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 

duced. The wages given by this Italian authority are slightly 
higher than the average of the Italian mills that I visited, but the 
speeds given are also slightly higher and the proportion about right 
for the new mills operated by electricity. 

In Italy heretofore it has been considered that ring frames were only suitable for 
warp under 40s and filling under 24s. This range is now being extended, but the 
warp numbers in Italy usually made on ring frames are about as follows: 

Warp 6s, 6is, and 6Js, generally made of American cotton, classification middling 
Liverpool, pure or mixed with flyings, suitable for heavy goods. 

Warp 10s, 12s, 14s, and 16s, made of American cotton, fully middling, pure or mixed 
with lap waste, much employed for towels and rubbing cloths. 

Warp 18s, 20s, 22s, and 24s, made of American cotton, good middling, used for 
material for furnishings, doublures, fancy weaving, etc., and substituted where possible 
for 40s and 50s, two ply. 

Warp 26s to 28s, American cotton, fully good middling, used for weaving light goods, 
zephyrs, calicoes, etc. 

More rarely warp 80s to 34s, American cotton, fully good middling, for gauze, lace 
handkerchiefs, etc. 

The Egyptian Metafifi cotton is generally adopted for warp 17s, 20s, 25|s, 27s, 34s, 
and 40s, for sewing thread, and for warp 30s and 40s for ply yarns, for weaving light 
goods, sateens, alpacas, etc. 

Finally the yarn spun on ring frames is used for such purposes as cords, strings, 
braces, and other articles of passamenterie. In general, the yarn made on mules with 
three-fourths the twist of the ring warp is good for ply yarns, but less strong. 

The yarn is sold in skeins to be dyed, on cops or quills for weaving, or on cones for 
economy of transport. 

PERMANENT INVESTMENT. 

To obtain the relative cost of mule and ring spinning in Italy we will figure on the 
relative costs of building and operating two spinning sheds, one for 20,000 mule spindles 
and one for 16,000 ring spindles. The preparatory machinery would be the same for 
each, supposing we are spinning medium numbers, say 16s to 40s. The costs we will 
obtain will be strictly the spinning-shed costs, and labor that applies to both card and 
spinning rooms, such as manager, fireman, etc., will be equally divided between the 
two. The cost of such a ring-spinning shed would be as follows for 16,000 spindles: 



Details of plant. 



Cost. 



1,620 square meters of land, at 10 lire per square meter 

Spinning shed, same dimensions, with saw-tooth root and double windows, at 35 lire per 

square meter 

40 spinning frames, with 400 spindles each, complete in place, at 11.22 lire per spindle 

Transmission: 

40 sets intermediate gearing, at 100 lire each 

45 meters of shafting, 100 millimeters diameter, including couplings and supports with 
self-lubricating boxes „ 

1 cast-iron main driving pulley 

40 split pulleys, at 60 lire each 

58 meters of heating pipes (heating surface) , vales, etc 

Lighting: 

160 incandescent lamps of 110 volts, 16 candlepower, and work connected therewith, cir- 
cuit breakers, etc., at 13 lire each 

1 dynamo of 80 amperes, at 14.80 lire per ampere 

Moistening, 16 humidifiers of the Drosopnore type, ventilators, 1 pump 

Motive power, all included 192 horsepower, at 375 lire 

Accessories and fitting-up expenses, at 2.5 lire per spindle 

Total 



$3, 126. 60 

10,943.10 
34, 647. 36 

772. 00 

783. 23 
106. 15 
463. 20 
335. 82 



401. 44 

228. 51 

979. 48 

13,896.00 

7, 720. 00 



74, 550. 00 



In the table the horsepower is reckoned at 1 horsepower per 100 spindles, with 7 per 
cent loss in transmission. Similarly for the mule-spinning room the horsepower is 
reckoned at 1 horsepower to 120 spindles, but there being more transmission machinery, 
the total power needed will be 210 horsepower. For the 20,000 mule spindles the area 
of shed would need to be 2,620 square meters, the dynamo for supplying 240 incan- 
descent lamps would need to be 120 amperes, and the heating arrangements would 
need to be correspondingly increased. The total cost of the spinning shed for the 
20,000 mule spindles would be $78,970. 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 



89 



Calculating the interest on the capital to be 5 per cent and the sinking fund at 10 per 
cent makes an expense for these two items of $11,182 for the ring spinning and $11,845 
for the mule spinning. If put in terms of cost per 1,000 spindles per day, these figures 
come to $2.33 for the ring spinning and $1.97 for the mule spinning. 

NUMBER AND COST PER DAY OP OPERATIVES. 

As regards the number of operatives for the two spinning rooms, we have the fol- 
lowing: 



Personnel. 


Cost per 
day. 


Personnel. 


Cost per 
day. 


Ring spinning, 16,000 spindles: 

1 foreman, at 6 lire 


$1.16 

19.67 

1.16 

3.13 

.58 

.48 

.43 


Mule spinning, 20,000 spindles: 

1 foreman, at 10 lire 


$1.93 


40 female spinners, at 2.55 lire each. . 
2 asf'itants, at 3 lire each 


10 spinners, at 6.25 lire each 

10 picked threaders, at 3.25 lire each . 
10 threaders, at 3 lire each 


12.06 
6.27 


12 Qwlf ers, at 1 .35 lire each 


5.79 


3 apprentices, at 1 lira each 


10 carriers, at 3 lire each 


2.90 


1 bander, at 2.50 lire 


1 rope binder, at 3 lire 


.58 


1 baler and polisher, at 2.25 lire 


1 oiler and polisher, at 3 lire 

Total mule-spinning room wages. 
Wages per 1 ,000 spindles 


.58 


Total ring-spinning room wages. . . 
Wages per 1,000 spindles 


26.61 
1.67 


' 30.11 
1.51 







The labor given in the table is the strictly spinning-room labor. For all labor that 
is general for both card an<j spinning room we will divide by two, to get the amount 
that should be added to the costs of the spinning. Such labor is as follows: 



General personnel. 


One-half 
of pay. 


General personnel. 


One-half 
of pay. 


1 director (manager) , at 10,000 lire a year. 


$965 
386 

260 
97 
87 

145 


1 engineer, at 6.25 lire a day 


$181 


1 bookkeeper, at 4,000 lire a year 


1 oiler, at 4.5 lire a day 

1 waste packer, at 3.25 lire a day 

1 roll coverer, at 4 lire a day 


130 


3 clerks, at 3 lire each a day, 300 working 
days 


94 

87 




Spinning-room proportion of gen- 
eral wages a year 




1 night watchman, at 3 lire a night 

1 fireman, at 5 lire a day 


2,432 









In addition there will be needed, in connection with the ring-spinning room, 1 
mechanic, at 6.25 lire a day, and for the mule-spinning room there will be required 3 
mechanics, 2 at 6.25 lire and 1 at 5 lire. This will give as costs per thousand spindles 
per day for general personnel as 58 cents for the ring spinning and 55 cents for the 
mule spinning. 

GENERAL EXPENSES AND SPINNING COSTS PER POUND. 

The general expenses of one year's working may be calculated as follows: 



Classification. 



Motive power, heating, and 
lighting, spinning shed only. 

Outlay for fittings, etc 

Taxes 

Fire insurance on $82,025, at 
2 per cent 

Accident insurance, 1 per cent 
of wages paid 



Ring 
spinning. 


Mule 
spinning. 


$2,070 
772 
676 


$2,258 
965 
772 


154 


162 


102 


115 



Classification. 



Lubricating oils 

Transmission belts and ropes 

Cords and bands 

Brooms, brushes, etc 

Leather for rolls, etc 

General 

Total 



Ring Mule 

spinning. 1 spinning. 



$560 
540 
405 
174 
386 
1,023 



1,146 
579 
193 
347 
965 



6,862 



8,293 



Divided by 300 and then by the number of spindles, this gives per 1,000 spindles 
per day for ring spinning $1.43 and mule spinning $1.38. The general expenses added 
to cost of general personnel therefore show as $2.01 for the ring spinning and $1.93 for 
the mule spinning. 

For the medium numbers from 16s to 40s, whether the operatives be paid by the 
day or according to work done, if the supervision is well managed and -the tariff of 
wages carefully studied the expenditure will be the same whatever the numbers 



90 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 



spun. Using the figures of cost as deduced we obtain the following table as showing 
the spinning costs (carding costs not included) per pound on rings and self-acting 
mules per 10§-hour day per 1.000 spindles: 

AMERICAN COTTON. 



Number. 


Mule spinning. 


Ring spinning. 


03 

3. 


© 

ft 


i 

M 

3 

03 . 

+j bx) 

ra 3 

© 

Pi 
1— 1 


o 

03 


co 

© 
OJ 

© 
ft 
X 
CD 

CD 

CD 
O 


o 


V: 

CD CD 

3 

PI M 

.2*3 

3 CD 

O 3 
> Pi 
CD -2 


a 

+° Pi 

O 

ft 


T3 

PI 
3 
o 
ft 

t-l 

CD 
ft 

co 
O 

O 


i 

M 
3 

- 03 

«3 

CD.S 
CD 

Pi 
1— 1 


o 

03 
1-1 


03 
CD 
03 
Pi 

co 
ft 

XI 

CD 

C3 

FH 

CD 

Pi 

CD 
O 


03 
O 

ft 


5-1 03 

©_© 

ft^ 
3 

l- 

.2 o 

-§© 

> £ 


3 

°» 

*»fl 

© 3 

30 
^ft 

O 
ft 


3 

3 
o 
ft 
u 
© 
ft 

+s 
co 

O 

O 


16 

18 


13.54.. 
15.24 . 


$1.97 


$1.51 


$1.93 


$5.41 


7,690 

8,150 

8,594 

9,000 

9,405 

9,783 

10, 173 

10, 272 

10, 330 

10, 396 

10, 472 

10,511 


352 
313 
282 
256 
234 
218 
201 
192 
176 
163 
152 
132 


$0. 0153 
.0173 
.0192 
.0211 
.0231 
.0250 


$2.33 


$1.67 


$2.01 


$6.01 


8,500 
8,500 
8,500 
8,500 
8,500 
9,000 
9,000 
9,000 
9,000 
9,000 
9, 500 
9,500 


588 
500 
440 
370 
328 
309 
280 
249 
220 
198 
181 
170 


$0. 0102 
.0120 


20 


16. 94. J 














.0137 


22 


18. 63 ■ 












. 0163 


24 


20.36.. 










. 




.0183 


26.. 


22.01..' 1 














.0194 


28 


23.70.. J 






.0269 
.0282 
.0307 
.0332 
.0356 
.0410 










.0215 


30 


25.50.. 1 *. 














.0241 


32.. 


27. 20.. ' 














.0273 


34.... 


28. 90.. ! 














.0303 


36 


30.50.. 








.0337 


40 


33.88..! 















.0354 



















JUMEL (EGYPTIAN) COTTON. 



40 


33.88.. 










8,913 

8,825 
8,730 
8,692 
8,658 
8,628 
8,604 
8,582 
8,564 
8,550 
8,540 


119 
112 
106 
99 
95 
88 
84 
79 
75 
71 
68 


$0. 0455 
.0483 
.0510 
.0546 
.0570 
.0615 
.0644 
.0685 
.0721 
. 0762 
.0795! 
1 


42 


35.57.. 










44 


37.27.. 










46 


38.96.. 










48 


40.56.. 










50 


42.35.. 










52 


44.04.. 










54 


45.74.. 










56 


47.93.. 










58 


49.15.. 










60 


50.82.. 





















8,500' 170: 
8,500 161j 
8,500 150; 
8,500 139 
8,500 130 
8,500 123 
8,500 119 
8,500 112 
8,500 106 
8, 500 99 
8,500. 95. 



0354 
0373 
0400 
0432 
0462 
0488 
0505 
0536 
0567 
0600 
0633 



This Italian authority from the foregoing table showed that in 
general the production of the ring spinning was 30 per cent more 
than that of the mule spinning, but for short-nbered cotton prefers 
the mule, as in such cases the speed of the ring frames will have to 
be reduced, as is also the case when much waste is run in. 

It will be noticed that in this table he gives the numbers of yarn 
in both English and French counts. The English system of yarn 
numbering is in general use in Italy, but some mills still cling to the 
French system. In the English system the number of 840-yard 
hanks of yarn contained in a pound is the "number" of the yarn. 
In the French system the number of 1,000-meter lengths of yarn 
contained in 500 grams (about 1.102 pounds) fixes the number. 
The 1,000-meter length of yarn is called a "matassa. " ' As the pro- 
portion of the length of the matassa to the skein is not in proportion 
to the weight of 500 grams to 1 pound, therefore for the same yarn 
the French numbers will be lower than the English, and No. 1 English 
count will equal No. 0.847 French count, No. 10 English count will 
equal No. 8.47 French count, etc. 



MILL LABOR. 

CONDITIONS AND WAGES. 

GRADUAL INCREASE IN PAY SCALE AND SCARCITY OF OPERATIVES — 
EFFECTS OF CHANGING CONDITIONS. 

The Italian cotton manufacturer has heretofore had quite an 
advantage over most of his competitors in being able to obtain 
abundant cheap labor, and this labor being, if not highly skilled, at 
least sober, industrious, and fairly intelligent. There are signs that 
he is gradually losing this advantage, and that labor is beginning to 
get scarcer and higher priced. In the last five years there have been 
many new industries started in northern Italy and the old ones have 
greatly expanded, while at the same time the increasing prosperity 
of the people has made farming more profitable. 

Labor can not yet be said to be scarce in Italy in the sense that it is 
in some other parts of the world, for instance in our Southern States, 
but the laborer is beginning to find himself to be of importance, and 
that if he strikes for higher wages he can not be readily replaced, as 
of old. Just at present the great expansion of the silk industry in 
northern Italy is being checked for want of sufficient skilled help, 
and both the wool and cotton mills are beginning to import help from 
southern Italy, and to try to get back labor from Germany and Aus- 
tria. A large number of Italians work in German and Austrian 
factories, especially those adjacent to the border; for, as a rule, the 
wages have been slightly higher there than in Italy, but if wages 
keep advancing at their present rate in Italy a portion of this will be 
reclaimed. 

Taxes have been so high in Italy and remuneration so low that 
hundreds of thousands of Italians have sought better opportunities 
abroad, mainly in the United States and Argentina, and their going 
has had quite an influence on the home labor market. The pros- 
perity of Italy is on the increase, and the workmen, finding them- 
selves in a stronger position than ever before, are demanding a cor- 
responding increase in wages, and by means of strikes, in most part 
engineered by various labor unions, they are gradually reducing the 
hours of labor and raising the standard of pay. 

HOURS OF LABOR WOMEN AND CHILDREN EMPLOYEES. 

Formerly the mills worked 12 hours or over, and in some cases ran 
steadily in flush periods up to 17 hours a day. This was done by 
putting the operatives, on a piecework system, as far as possible. 
When he works by the day the Italian operative wishes to leave 
before the whistle' blows, but if he works by the piece he will work 
as many hours as it is possible for him to stand. Even now manu- 
facturers often avail themselves of this fact to increase their pro- 
duction when orders are to be rushed. In the remoter country dis- 
tricts a few mills still work 12 hours, but the tendency everywhere 
is for a shorter workday. Hand-loom workers at home still work 

91 



92 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 

very long days, and this is one reason why they are able to survive 
the competition of the power loom. The present hours of labor in 
Italian cotton mills average probably 10 J. Where two shifts are 
worked the hours have in some cases been reduced to 9, and generally 
for night work the lesser hours are run, but the new law has stopped 
nearly all night work. 

There is no law regulating the hours of labor per day or per week, 
but there is a law forbidding women and children to work at night. 
This law was passed in 1902, to take effect June 30, 1907, the five- 
year interval being allowed the mill men in which to double their 
plants. This was made necessary by the fact that the great bulk 
of Italian mill labor consists of women and children. The Govern- 
ment figures for 1903 showed the operatives in cotton mills to be 
138,880, of which 34,335, or 25 per cent, were men; 82,056, or 59 
per cent, were women; 4,739, or 3 per cent, were bo}^s; and 17,750, 
or 13 per cent, were girls. These figures show that the women and 
children comprise three-fourths of the total employees. 

LUNCH HOURS, PAYMENT OF' WAGES, AND TIME KEEPING. 

In regard to the arrangement of the working hours, there is alwaj^s 
a good interval allowed in the middle of the day for lunch. The Italian 
does not believe in the American quick lunch, and likes to take plenty 
of time over his meal, sip his wine, and converse. Usually the mid- 
day rest is 1J hours, never under 1 hour, and in a great number of 
mills it is a full 2 hours. For the average 10|-hour day the work is 
usually started at 7 o'clock in winter and at 6.30 in summer, and run 
until 12 o'clock; resumed at 1.30 o'clock and continued to 6.30 in 
summer and 7 in winter. In many places the employees prefer not 
starting until 7.30 in the morning. In a few mills they start as late 
as 8 o'clock and run that much later at night to make up for it. 

While the hours of starting and stopping are officially as given, 
there is really a difference of 10 minutes. The Italian operatives will 
not run their looms or other machines up to the time the whistle 
blows, but some 10 minutes before will start getting ready to leave, 
washing up, etc., and as the managers have found it impossible to 
change this they now require, in most mills, that employees shall be 
at the mill 10 minutes before the starting hour, so that they will get 
their wraps off and be ready to start their machines promptly at the 
sound of the whistle, and a bell is rung 10 minutes before the stop- 
ping whistle, so they can get ready to leave. This really reduces a 
10^-hour working day to 10 hours and 10 minutes. There is no stop 
made on Saturday afternoon and the mills work the full time, as on 
other days. In most places in Italy shops are open half the day 
Sunday, so the mills see no reason to stop on Saturday for the em- 
ployees to do their shopping. 

Most mills pay off either every Saturday night or every second 
Saturday night. Some mills use pay envelopes, but in other mills 
each employee keeps a small pay book in which, when the clerk 
hands him his wages in cash, he enters the amount and signs his 
name. He keeps the book, but his signature is evidence that he has 
received the money. Usually one to two weeks notice is required 
from employees on leaving a mill and either one-half to one week's 
wages are kept back, or else a fixed amount, 5 francs (96.5 cents) at 
some mills and 10 francs ($1.93) at others. 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 



93 



Some of the mills, especially the large ones, have at the entrance a 
large wall case with numbered brass checks suspended from hooks, 
and each workman, as he goes in, takes his tag with him, and replaces 
it when he leaves. The number of tags remaining on the board show 
the operatives absent. Inside the mill the operatives go by their 
numbers, and their wages are paid according to number, not name. 

BASIS OF MILL WAGES. 

It will be noticed that the wages seem to be all stated by the day. 
The custom in a large number of the mills is to fix a day wage for a 
certain amount of work, and then pay extra for anything over this. 
Thus at one mill I found most of the looms running on flannelets for 
the Turkish trade. These goods were made 55 inches wide on the 
loom and afterwards split in two. The looms were making 150 
picks per minute and putting in 32 picks to the inch. Each employee 
ran two looms and was paid 3 lire (57.9 cents) a day, for which she 
was required to get a cut from each loom. The cuts were 50 meters 
(54.5 yards) each, so this was figuring on about 70 per cent production 
as the day's run was set at 10^ hours, but was really only 10J . Any- 
thing over a cut was paid for extra in a slightly increased ratio. On 
fly frames and other machines the same method is pursued. In some 
mills I found that the day's wages for all persons in the spinning room 
were based on a certain production from the room, and at the end of 
the week their wages per day were over or under the set day wage 
according to the total production obtained. 

. In southern Italy the wages are lower than in northern Italy, and 
might be given as 1| to 2 lire (29.1 to 38.6 cents) for the first, as against 
2 to 3 lire (38.6 to 58 cents) for the latter, but wages vary so, even 
between mills on the same goods in the same locality, that this is very 
general. The country mills pay much less than the city mills, but 
as a rule the help is less efficient. 

The following is a daily wage table from a southern mill, as pub- 
lished by the Government ; hours of work 1 1 ; days worked in a year 
about 300: 



Workers. 


1894. 


1898. 


1903. 


Carding: Men 1 


Cents. 
34.7 
15.4 

34.7 

13. 5-15. 4 

8.7-21.2 

34.7 

15.4 

9. 7-23. 2 


, Cents. 
44.2 
21.2 

51.4 
13. 5-23. 3 
17. 4-25. 1 

53.1 

21.2 

13. 5-27. 


Cents. 
48.3 


Flv frame: Women 

Spinning: 

Men 


27.0 
56.0 


Girls 


17. 4-25. 1 


Cop winding: Women and girls 

Twisters: 

Men 


15.4-25.1 
54.0 


Women 


21.2 


Spoolers : Women and e;irls 


13.5-27.0 



The average daily w x ages paid in a country mill near Milan have 
gradually increased from 30.9 cents for men and 11.6 cents for women 
spinners in 1871 to 47.3 cents for men and 36.1 cents for women in 
1907, while for w r eaving the wages have increased from 15.4 cents to 
39.6 cents in the same period. The hours of labor have also been 
decreased from 12 to 10^ per day. The number of days worked per 
year is about 290. 



94 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 

MANNER OF LIVING OF THE MILL WORKERS. 

Very few Italian mills have tenement houses or mill cottages. A 
good many supply houses for the overseers, but the employees lodge 
themselves. In the country a large number own their own houses, 
and frequently walk a good distance to the mill every day. In the 
cities the workers usually lodge in big crowded flats near the mill. 
The average family will crowd into two rooms, and will pay from 6 to 
20 francs ($1.16 to $3.86) rent a month. A few mills have built special 
tenement houses where girls, who come from a distance, can board and 
be under the charge of matrons appointed by the mill, but this is not 
general; in most cases they stay with relatives. A mill at Turin, one 
of the few that has its own mill cottages, has the cottages built in 
square, two-story style, with two rooms on each floor, and charges 12 
francs ($2.32) a month for each floor. A manager gave as reasons for 
the mills not having houses for their operatives, that so many were 
located in the country near the operatives' homes, and also that not 
all of the operatives were cleanly, and that when living in houses not 
belonging to them they were very careless of the property. 

The average Italian operative gets low wages and lives cheaply. 
Spaghetti and wine seem to be his main dependence for a meal. The 
average country operative does not have a great variety of food and, 
in Piedmont and Lombardy, for instance, the regular menu is as fol- 
lows : Breakfast — bread and milk mush ; dinner — spaghetti, potatoes, 
and milk mixed into a porridge, polenta (corn-meal mush), and 
wine ; supper — cold spaghetti porridge, cold polenta, cheese, and some 
wine. 

Dinner in the middle of the day is the heartiest meal, and enough 
spaghetti porridge and polenta are then made up to last for both 
dinner and supper, being eaten cold for the latter meal. Chestnuts 
are also a staple article of food, and radishes, with olive oil and other 
vegetables, when procurable. In the towns the operatives as a rule 
get higher wages, and have a somewhat more varied diet, including 
meat. It will be noticed that wine is always taken at the midday 
meal, and usually a smaller quantity at supper. This is of course 
not an intoxicant, but a regular part of the diet. In fact I was 
informed by a physician that in Piedmont, where there is a peculiar 
penetrating dampness in the atmosphere in the fall, wine was almost 
a necessity to keep in good health. Wine is in the reach of all, even 
of the poorest, for even the better class of table wine, of the kinds 
used by the operatives, only costs 40 centimes a liter (7.7 cents per 
1.05 quarts), and less if bought in bulk. 

EFFICIENCY OF THE OPERATIVES. 

The Italian operative is less efficient than the English or American. 
On some lines this has the effect of making the labor cost higher than 
in England, but on the coarser goods the labor cost is less than in 
England. A larger portion of the operatives are women, which 
partly accounts for the smaller quantity of work turned out, and 
they come of a people who have been engaged in agricultural work, 
and who are comparatively new to manufacturing of any kind. The 
managers say that the operatives are yearly becoming more efficient 
and skillful. The Italian is dexterous with his hands, is fairly effi- 
cient, and seems to adapt himself to new work readily. Some of the 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 95 

work done by Italian designers, even for medium-grade goods, is 
very artistic. At first all the superintendents, here called "directors," 
were imported from Switzerland, Germany, or England to operate 
the mills, but these are steadily being replaced by Italians, and few 
of the former now remain. 

The wages paid in the various mills vary greatly and with the con- 
tinued strikes they are changing continually. The condition of the 
labor in the various mills, the hours worked, why strikes are inaugu- 
rated and how settled, can not be better shown than by the notices 
published in regard to these strikes. 

CAUSES AND RESULTS OF STRIKES. 

The following notices are selected from among the dozens of official 
ones published each month in the Bulletin of the Cotton Industrial 
Association : 

Villanova sul Clisi (Brescia) . — The limited liability company, the Cotonificio Bres- 
ciano Ottolini, employs the following operatives: 19 men as "batteurs" (picker-room 
hands) at 39 cents a day; 24 at the cards at 39 cents a day; 57 at the "self-actings" 
(mules) at 68 cents, and 10 boys at 21 cents a day; 29 women at the cop winders at 
32 cents and 2 girls at 27 cents; 12 adults at the twisters at 21 cents; 6 carriers at 
46 cents a day; all these for 11 hours. There are also 10 assistants, part for 11 and 
part for 9 hour*, at 77 cents each; 9 men at the ring frames at 37 cents, 1 boy at 17 cents, 
110 women at 28 cents, and 122 girls at 22 cents; 5 men at the fly frames at 42 cents and 
210 women at 37 cents for 9 hours. In the reel room there are 6 men at 44 cents, 37 
women at 33 cents, and 1 girl at 27 cents; for bunching and packing the skeins 4 men 
at 37 cents, 20 women at 33 cents, 2 girls at 23 cents; also 18 men in the machine 
shop at 52 cents, all for 11 hours. The force, for technical reasons, is divided into 
two sections, one for the old spinning department and one for the new. In the old 
spinning department the hands are divided into two shifts of 9 hours each, while in 
the new only one shift is used, which works 11 hours. The operatives in this last 
section, in order to obtain equality with the others, initiated a strike on July 12, in 
which 44 men, 97 women, and 65 girls took part. Through the intervention of the 
secretary of the local labor union the workmen desisted from their strike and returned 
to their work on July 13, without any concessions being granted. It is to be noted 
though that when the reduction of the hours of labor of the first section took place 
from 11 to 9 hours, the tariff for excess work there was increased from 12 to 15 per cent, 
and in the second section it was also increased from 7 to 8 per cent. 

Leghorn. — The firm Cantoni-Coats for the manufacture of sewing thread gives work 
to 250 men at 58 cents and to 950 women at 23 cents per 11-hour day. The firm wish- 
ing to introduce in the several branches "lustraggio and tavelle" (glazing and rough- 
ing), a system of labor that meant a reduction of wages, the whole body of operatives 
on July 8 initiated a strike, asking a general increase of wages. The labor union of 
Lucca directed the strike, the president of the local chamber of commerce intervened, 
and the firm granted an increase of 5.8 cents per day during apprenticeship and of 
2.9 cents for those on the roughening work, and besides made a formal promise for a 
general increase of the rate of remuneration. On July 29 work was resumed. Dur- 
ing the strike |4,053 was expended in assistance to the strikers. 

Clavesana (Cuneo). — The Lombardy Yarn Manufacturing and Printing Company 
employs 407 hands, of which 7 are mechanics at 77 cents a day; 83 machine tenders, 
carriers, and card and picker room hands at 40 cents a day; 12 boys, 228 women, and 
70 girls on the draw frames, fly frames, ring frames, and other work at wages of 24 cents, 
36 cents, and 22 cents, respectively; 6 assistants at 96.5 cents each, and a mason at 
58 cents. The hours of work were 11. Demanding an increase in the tariff of remu- 
neration, a strike was inaugurated July 8, and in acceding to their demands the firm 
made the hours of labor 10 and raised the wages of the 83 picker-room hands, carders, 
carriers, and machine tenders from 40 to 44 ceflts; of the 12 boys employed on the 
draw frames, rings, and fly frames from 24 to 26 cents; of the 228 women from 36 cents 
to 41 cents; and of the 70 girls from 22 cents to 24 cents a day. Work was resumed on 
July 15. 

Scanzo (Bergamo). — On March 9 there was initiated a strike at the weaving plant of 
Carlo Caprotti by 3 men and 198 women weavers making 31 cents a day, 46 girls running 
cop winders at 16 cents a day, 50 spoolers at 21 cents a day, 12 warpers at 29 cents a day, 



96 COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 

and 16 drawing-in hands at 35 cents a day. The weavers demanded that the fort- 
nightly minimum requirements be reduced by one piece of cloth, the cop winders, 
spoolers, and warpers asked an increase in wages. Fourteen men remained employed 
until the 14th at 39 cents a day, and 20 boys at 19 cents a day. The strikers, notwith- 
standing they were not organized, were assisted by the Catholic Society of Labor of 
Bergamo. They obtained a reduction of the minimum required and also a concession 
that loom stoppage not by their fault be not counted. The increase of wages will be 
settled by an arbitrator. The work began again on March 16. 

Volciano, near Roe. — In the cotton manufacturing establishment of Valle Sabbia 
Hefti & Co. there are employed 596 hands, of whom 168 are men at 42 cents, and 326 
women at 35 cents a day in the spinning department, and 55 men at 42 cents and 47 
women at 33 cents in the weaving department. On July 12, 382 of the above opera- 
tives — 150 men and 232 women — raised a strike, sending representatives to the owner 
and asking 9 hours per day instead of 11, and an increase of 20 per cent on their wages. 
The firm did not answer, and on July 27 the operatives presented, through the secretary 
of the Brescia Labor Union, the following memoranda : A reduction of the hours of labor 
for all categories of workers from 11 to 10; an increase of "cottimi" (remuneration for 
production over that required) in proportion; the same statu quo for the workmen paid 
by the day; a general increase of wages in proportion to be agreed on; the approval of 
the tariff of wages by the Chamber of Commerce and by the Chamber of Labor; a bet- 
tering of the hygienic conditions of the places for labor; an assurance that no measures 
will be taken against the strikers. 

On July 30 a discussion took place between the workmen's commission and the firm, 
and it was agreed, first, that on September 9 the mills will employ two shifts at 9 hours 
of labor for each in the spinning department, and not alter the wages in force; for the 
.weaving department the hours of labor are to be reduced to 10 J, delaying a half hour 
entering in the morning and no variation to be made in wages; second, the modification 
of the hours of labor for the weaving department will start on the same day that the two 
shifts are organized for the spinning department. During the strike the work' was 
abandoned by all hands and was resumed August 1, except by 7 workmen who dis- 
charged themselves during the strike and were not afterwards taken back by the firm. 
During this time several workmen became subscribers to the Brescia Labor Union; the 
manufacturers belong to the Cotton Industrial League at Milan. For assistance to the 
strikers $36.67 was spent, which was raised through subscription; several innkeepers 
of the place, favoring the strike, credited the workmen for food, in order that they 
might strike. 

Turin. — The Cotonificio Subalpino employs 143 hands, of which 56 are men, 3 boys, 
78 women, and 6 girls. The work is thus divided: 10 men in the card room at 44 cents 
a day and 32 women at 33 cents; in the spinning room 30 men at 44 cents, 3 boys at 
29 cents, 19 women at 35 cents, and 6 girls at 28 cents; on the twisters 8 women at 31 
cents; in the reel room 6 women at 33 cents; at various day work 15 men at 48 cents and 
14 women at 31 cents. The hours of work for the men and boys are 11 and for the women 
and girls 10 per day. On June 25 a strike was caused by the failure of the mill to 
carry out exactly the provisions of the new law in regard to night work of women and 
girls. The League of Textile Workers assisted the strike, and on June 27 the repre- 
sentatives of the operatives obtained the abolition of night work for the women and 
girls. For the men the hours were arranged as follows: 10 hours nominally, 9 hours 
effective. The women were divided into two shifts, the first working from 5 a. m. 
to 2 p. m., the second from 2 to 9 p. m. The women in this establishment are 
employed on the speeders, ring frames, and reels. Work was totally suspended three 
days. This question was settled by the assistance of the treasurer, the secretary of 
the League of Textile Workers, and of that of the Federation of Textile Workers of 
Milan. 

Castelleone (Cremona). — The spinning mill of Rotondi & Co. employs about 20 men 
at wages of 19 to 48 cents and about 200 women at 4 to 29 cents per day. The men 
worked 11 hours and the women 10£. All belong to the League of Catholic Workmen. 
They demanded the following: (1) That the deposit required of each operative be re- 
duced to a maximum of 96.5 cents, to be returned when he quits the mill after 8 days' 
previous notice; (2) a less harsh application of fines, always in the presence of the op- 
erative and with the approval of the assistant, arid that none be levied where absent 
through sickness; (3) assurance of a minimum of salary of 24.1 cents, except where one 
does not merit any more; (4) hours of work to be 9£ and no night work. The strike 
started July 25. On the local syndic intervening to settle the strike the linn was 
allowed a month in which to arrange the hours of labor and to concede the demands 
and the maximum of the deposit was raised to $1.93. The strikers resumed work 
July 27. 



COTTON GOODS EXPORTS, 



STEADY GROWTH OF THE INDUSTRY. 



EXTENT OF FOREIGN TRADE COMPETITION WITH THE UNITED STATES 

IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 

A study of the export business of Italy, in this line, is of value 
just at present, for not only does Italy ship good-sized orders to the 
Philippines, but her goods come into competition with those from 
the United States at other points, especially in South America, the 
Red Sea ports, and Turkey. In the latter two places the cheaper 
Italian sheeting has been substituted for the American, and, in fact, 
in Turkey the American sheeting has been almost driven off the 
market. 

Italy imposes an import duty on raw cotton of 3 lire per quintal 
(57.9 cents per 220.4 pounds) and a duty on cotton batting of 9 lire 
(SI. 74) per quintal, but this is more than returned in the shape of 
a rebate on cotton manufactured for export, } 7 arns receiving back 
4 lire (77.2 cents) and textiles 4.5 lire (86.9 cents) per quintal. In 
1905, for instance, there were exported 101,466 quintals of } r arn and 
234,096 quintals of textiles; therefore the cotton manufacturers were 
refunded 1,459,296 lire ($281,644). 

The following table illustrates very clearly the progress of the 
Italian cotton industry, showing the increasing consumption of cot- 
ton, and the increasing exports and decreasing imports of cotton 
yarn and cotton cloth. The figures are average yearly figures for 
five-year periods up to 1900, when yearly figures are given: 



Year. 



Raw cotton 

(net im- 
ports;. 



1871-1875 

1S7G-1SS0 

1881-1885 

18S6-1890 

1891-18C5 

1896-1900 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 (six months) 



Pounds. 
37, 188, 533 
53. 662, 331 
101,525,056 
145,011,298 
194, 979, 284 
262, 384, 878 
287, 899, 293 
311,444,816 
324, 573, 162 
324,931,312 
345, 223, 320 
384, 410. 660 
303, 481 , 102 



Yarn. 



Imports. Exports 



Pounds. 

22, 122, 650 

21,029,466 

20,592,854 

9,274,212 

3, 419, 065 

1,867,229 

1,801,990 

1, 832, 846 

1,977,870 

2,065,589 

1,820,063 

1.821.724 

1,006,567 



1, 



Pounds. 

45, 182 

379, 308 

220, 620 

682, 358 

774, 220 

11,991,523 

21,103,520 

19,414,816 

20,280,767 

20, 787, 246 

22, 550, 446 

22,877,300 

9,761,516 



Cloth. 



Imports. Exports. 



Pounds. 

25,742,500 

23,068,827 

28,278,642 

22,736,684 

11,406,582 

4,296,037 

3,575,990 

4,016,129 

4, 006, 872 

5,957,192 

6,607,151 

8, 038, 208 

5, 177, 857 



Pounds. 

432, 425 

830,908 

820,247 

1,429,514 

6,580,703 

20, 876, 590 

32, 365, 300 

30,262,022 

38, 110, 686 

54, 149, 635 

54, 869, 241 

61, 744, 840 

27, 292, 573 



The net import of cotton given in the first column of the table is 
the total cotton imported and entered for consumption, not count- 
ing the re-exports, which go mostly to neighboring sections of Ger- 
many, Austria, France, and Switzerland. With the exception of a 
few hundred bales grown in southern Italy, there is no cotton raised 



27703—08- 



97 



98 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 



in the Kingdom, and the total raw material for the cotton manu- 
facturing is imported. The cotton import figures, the net amount 
as given above, is therefore the exact measure of the consumption 
of the Italian mills, and show that in 1906 there was consumed the 
equivalent of 768,821 bales of 500 pounds, and that the consumption 
has increased steadily for the last thirty years or more. 

COST OF RAW COTTON TO MANUFACTURERS. 

The bulk of the cotton so imported comes from the United States, 
but this is mixed with 10 to 30 per cent of Indian cotton, so that 
the cost is much lowered. For instance, in 1905, 74.52 per cent of 
the total was American, 4.29 per cent Egyptian, and 21.19 per cent 
Indian and Levantine. Taking their average values per quintal 
(220.46 pounds) we find the average value per quintal of the whole 
to be as follows: 



Cotton. 

• 


Average 
yearly 
value\ 


Percentage 
of total 
imports. 


Average 

value of 

the whole. 


American 


$21.81 
34.93 
18.33 


74.52 

4.29 

21.19 


§16. 25 


Egyptian 


1.50 


Indian, etc 


3.88 






Total 




100.00 21.63 











The average value of the American, Egyptian, and Indian cotton 
was 9.89, 15.85, and 8.32 cents a pound, respectively, and the average 
works out to 9.81 cents a pound. Leaving out the small amount of 
Egyptian, which is mostly used separately for finer work, when the 
American and the Indian is used together the proportion is 25 per 
cent Indian to 75 per cent American, and the average value is reduced 
to 9.5 cents. Larger proportions are frequently used, especially for 
sheetings, and this fact, coupled with cheaper labor and heavier 
sizing, enables them to produce an article that can undersell the 
American in markets where cheapness and not quality is the main 
consideration. 

The average value of all the cotton imported into Italy works out at 
112 lire per quintal, or 9.81 cents a pound. The proportions of each 
varies each year, but worked out in similar manner the average value 
of the cotton imported into Italy for the ten years before this were 
as follows: 



Year. 


Lire per 
quintal. 


Cents per 
pound. 


Year. 


Lire per Cents per 
quintal. pound. 


1896 


100 
92 
84 
32* 

100 


i 
8.76 
8.05 
7.35 
7.22 
8.76 


1901 


117 ' 10.25 


1897 

1898.. 

1899 


1902 

1903 

1904 


110 9.63 
120 10. 51 
150 13.13 


1900 


1905 


112 9.81 



It will be noticed that 1904 was the record year as regards price of 
raw material, and this had quite a bad effect on the export trade. 
The yarn exports were immediately checked, but cloth being sold 
ahead, its effect on the export of that article did not show up ad- 
versely until the next year. When cotton dropped back to normal, 
however, the mills made good profits again, and the export business 
quickly outstripped its former figures. 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 



99 



PRICES OF YARN IN MILAN. 



The following table, showing the average prices per pound of the 
ordinary numbers quoted in the Milan market reports, also shows 
the. high figures reached during 1904 on yarn: 



Description. 



Single yarns: 

Warp and filling, India 1, 12s 

Warp and filling, India II, 12s 

Warp, America 1, 16s 

Warp, America I, 24s 

Filling and medium twist, America II, 24s 

Warp, America I, 30s 

Medium twist, America II, 30s 

Warp, America I, 38s 

Filling, America I, 44s 

Doubled yarns: 

India 1, 12s, 2-ply 

America II, 24s, 2-ply 

America I, 32s, 2-ply 

America I, 40s, 2-ply 



1900. 


1901. 


1902. 


1903. 
Cents. 


Cents 


Cents. 


Cents. 


14.89 


12.43 


13.22 


13.84 


14.54 


12.22 


12.43 


13.49 


17.34 


15.06 


15.24 


16.64 


18.65 


16.46 


16.55 


17.95 


19.27 


16.33 




17.69 


19.53 


17.25 




18.56 


19.27 


17.12 




18. 30 


21.89 


19.35 


19.44 


21.02 


21.37 


19.09 


19.18 


20.67 


16.83 


14.46 


15.08 


15.63 


20.24 


18.10 


18.58 


19.95 


21.99 


19.75 


20.14 


21.21 


23.74 


21.21 


21.99 


22.83 



1904. 



Cents. 
15.68 
14.80 
19.13 
29.25 
20.23 
21.28 
21.02 
19.12 
23.07 

17.46 
22.15 
23.39 
25.19 



1905. 



Cents. 
13.75 
12.87 
15.85 
17.08 
16.81 
17.86 
17.60 
20.14 
20.58 

15.68 
18.88 
20.06 
21.99 



All yarns for export are put up in packages of 4.5 kilos each, 
which is the same as the English package of 10 pounds. Usually 40 
of these bundles go to a bale, but this varies. 

The imports of yarn into Italy show a steady decrease, and prac- 
tically the only yarns imported are special numbers or high counts. 
Colored ply yarns form the largest single item in this list. The bulk 
of the yarn imported comes from Great Britain and Germany. The 
exports of yarn show a correspondingly steady increase, and Italy's 
chief customer, Turkey, prefers to buy it gray and dye locally in 
small lots as needed. Besides Turkey the other countries that buy 
Italian yarns are mainly Argentina, Egypt, Austria, and the Balkan 
States. 

IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF YARNS AND CLOTHS. 

The decrease in yarn imports, except for colored ply yarns, and 
the decrease in cloth imports, except of fine goods, also the steady 
increase in yarn exports, especially gray yarns, and of cloth exports, 
especially colored goods, is well shown by the following table, in 
which are given the main classes of goods imported and exported 
for 1895, 1900, and 1905: 



Description. 



Single yarns: 

Gray 

Bleached 

Dyed , 

Ply yarns: 

Gray 

Bleached 

Dyed 

Plain goods: 

Gray 

Bleached 

Colored or dyed 

Printed 

Figured textiles and damasks. . 





Import 


s. 

1905. 




Exports. 


1895. 


1900. 


1895. 


1900.- 


Pounds. 

970,862 

51,794 

55,982 


Pounds. 

275,500 

45,843 

60,390 


Pounds. 

230,538 

44,040 

33,721 


Pounds. 
435,951 
253,901 
592,435 


Pounds. 
7,033,405 
750,242 
2,031,727 


730,626 
144,362 
243,983 


196,597 

57,524 

401,348 


173,896 

54,218 

429,560 


71,410 
176,540 
828,043 


981,221 

344,706 

1,774,881 


2,282,462 
1,308,294 
1,189,278 
3,609,932 
577,228 


333,686 

627,258 

789,032 

1,058,140 

266,684 


316,715 
599,929 
723,573 
867,715 
702,194 


149,431 
390,549 
9,056,897 
771,620 
575,685 


1,222,118 

854,932 

21,049,522 

2,861,453 

1,236,664 



1905. 



Pounds. 

14,647,123 
1,328,792 
1,959,356 

2,112,534 

511,548 

1,553,600 

6,615,526 

1,491,667 

36,851,762 

4,770,778 

859,119 



Recently, with the increase of mercerization works, they have 
begun shipping good amounts of mercerized yarn to Damascus and 
other points in Turkey. The shipments of sewing thread are also 



100 



COTTON TEXTILE TEADE IN ITALY. 



increasing in the lower numbers. The bulk of the Italian yarn exports 
are, as stated, gray yarns, and they are mostly the medium numbers. 
The quality, and therefore the price, is above the Indian but under 
the English yarns of similar counts. 

In cloth imports, as in the yarn imports, there was a steady decrease 
for a long period, but since 1901 there has been a slight increase in 
the amount of fine cloth imported. This seems to be due to the fact 
that the increased wealth of Italy enables the people to buy many 
luxuries, hitherto forbidden, and this tendency has shown itself, 
to a certain extent, in the purchase of finer goods, which the Italian 
cotton manufacturers, while controlling the home market on general 
lines, have not yet found a demand for in sufficient quantities to be 
profitable. On the other hand the exports of cotton cloths have 
made rapid progress, and Italy competes abroad in many markets 
with Great Britain, as well as other countries. 

DETAILS SHOWING VALUE OF TRADE. 

The following table shows more in detail the cotton and cotton 
manufactures imported and exported in 1906, giving not only the 
weight and value of the yarn and piece goods, but also the sewing 
thread, ribbons, knit goods, made-up goods, and all other manu- 
factures of cotton: 



Description. 



Cotton in bales. 
Cotton batting. 



Total cotton. 



Cotton manufactures: 

Yarn — 

Gray 

Bleached 

Dyed 

Twist- 
Gray 

Bleached 

Dyed 

Sewing thread 

Cotton twine 

Fish nets 

Vigogna yarn 



Total yarn, etc 

Plain gray goods 

Plain bleached goods 

Colored or dyed goods 

Printed goods 

Velvets 

Embroideries 

Embroidered textiles 

Muslin and veiling 

Damasks, etc 

Tulles 

Mercerized goods 

Ribbons 

Tape 

Box cloth 

Brocades 

Buttons 

Antiseptic cloth 

Handkerchiefs and shawls. 

Knit goods 

Made-up goods 

Mixtures 

Cotton oil cloth , etc 

Cotton belting 



Total cotton manufactures. 



Imports. 



Pounds. 



403, 374, 578 
29, 534 



403, 404, 292 



300, 185 
33, 721 

40, 774 

147, 448 

48,929 

421, 625 

827, 602 

2,645 

24, 244 

440 



555, 408 
777, 351 
, 095, 388 
901,436 
667,371 



236, 489 

186, 230 

441,241 

30, 415 

93, 229 

198, 801 

150,092 

121,220 

4,188 

220 

3,967 

1SS.SS3 

41,410 

761,262 

469, 452 

974,609 

2. 424 



Value. 



), 561, 473 
3,621 



39, 565, 094 



67, 820 

8,209 

11,033 

63, 009 

17, 952 

145, 099 

652, 244 

556 

16, 984 

104 



983, 010 

158, 553 

260, 032 

416,297 

422,313 

462, 988 

461,340 

381,592 

230, 970 

197, 868 

46, 841 

37, 472 

83, 561 

77, 055 

46, 706 

2,273 

104 

1,390 

84, 038 

102,234 

236. 799 

388, 461 

275,069 

955 



5,357,921 



Exports. 



Pounds. 



18, 708, ?00 
2,865 



18,711,165 



14,503,642 
1,292,866 
1,479,545 

2; 866, 522 

869, 478 

1, 570, 129 

295, 116 

33, 721 

5,289 



7,926,686 

2, 173, 144 

38, 718. 109 

6,942,820 

220 

1,910,648 

109, 318 

40, 333 

839, 724 

16, 089 

610, 508 

284, 536 

546, 151 

24, 464 



530, 723 

2,221,412 

724,014 

368 



Value. 



8983, 107 
17, 550 



1,000,657 



2, 527, 410 
243, 410 
312,242 

754, 745 
175, 880 
365, 732 
116,292 
7,087 
3,706 



4, 506, 504 

1, 756, 135 

542, 349 

10,713,884 

2,675,065 

16S 

50, 194 

19S. 75] 

37.373 

373,760 

25,360 

192,994 

119,598" 

283, 725 

9,426 



189, 827 

834, 719 

577,375 

9,949 



23,097,156 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 



101 



COUNTRIES TO WHICH EXPORTS ARE MADE. 

The following table shows very clearly the great expansion in Italy's 
export of manufactures of cotton and the directions in which this flow 
has found outlet : 



Country. 



Argentina 

Turkey in Europe. 

Turkey in Asia 

Egypt.. 

Austria-Hungary . 

India 

Roumania 

Brazil 

Chile 

Switzerland 

Peru 

United States 

Germany 

Greece 

France 

Central America. . 

Australia 

Tunis 

Uruguay 

Mexico 

AU others 



1895. 


1900. 


1901. 


1902. 


1903. 


1904. 


§1,873,000 


§4,203,000 


$3,375,000 


$3,427,000 


$5,440,000 


$7,023,000 


560, 000 


1,658,000 


4,029,000 


3,256,060 


3,281,000 


4,049,000 


48, 000 


530, 000 


440 800 


792, 000 


1,352,000 


1,747,000 


132,000 


848,000 


927,000 


885,000 


1, 099, 000 


1, 582, 000 


48, 000 


651,000 


867, 000 


306, 000 


740,000 


1,318,000 


16,000 


829, 000 


603,000 


299,060 


494, 000 


898, 660 


73,000 


137, 000 


277, 000 


1,028,000 


' 820,000 


830, 000 


831,000 


752, 000 


571,000 


697, 000 


743,000 


583, 000 


36,000 


468, 000 


245, 000 


323,000 


418, 000 


481, 000 


141,000 


257, 000 


441,000 


214, 000 


270,000 


454, 000 


56, 000 


214, 000 


244, COO 


179,000 


205, 000 


335, 000 


140,000 


125, 000 


112,000 


241,-000 


354,000 


277,000 


131,000 


240,000 


261,000 


168, 000 


178, 000 


273, 000 


13, 000 


84, 000 


183,000 


72,0C0 


182,000 


270, 600 


135,000 


199, 000 


297,000 


258, 000 


200, 000 


224, 000 


36, 000 


232, 000 


229, 000 


136, 000 


237,000 


214,000 


1,000 


116,000 


183, 000 


186, 000 


253,000 


205, 000 


55, 000 


64, 000 


140, 000 


119, 000 


139, 000 


161,000 


230, 000 


121,000 


20, 000 


266,000 


255, 000 


133, 000 


1,000 


65, 000 


61,000 


88,000 


131,000 


112, 000 


155,000 


576,000 


554, 000 


670, 000 


715, 000 


1,543,000 


4,711,000 


12, 369, 000 


14,259,000 


13, 610, 000 


17, 506, 000 


22, 712, 000 



This is a very interesting table and shows a steady growth in the 
shipment of cotton goods from Italy. It shows that Italy's best mar- 
kets are found in Argentina, Turkey, Egypt, Austria, India, and 
Roumania. Colored goods form the bulk of the exports. 

CLASSES OF COTTONS EXPORTED. 

Gray goods go to the Italian colony of Eritrea in Africa, Turkey, 
Egypt, and Argentina, in the order named, Cabots being the largest 
item in this list. Bleached goods go mainly to Argentina and Turkey, 
but the total export is not very large, and consists mostly of shirt- 
ings, piques, lenos, table linen, etc. Printed goods go to Turkey, 
Egypt, and Argentina, and consist of shirting prints, printed flannel- 
ets, barchent, zephyrs, printed linings, cretonnes, printed handker- 
chiefs, etc. Colored goods form the bulk of the export, and go in 
largest quantities to Argentina, Turkey, Egypt, India, and the Bal- 
kan States. Quite a variety of goods is included under this heading, 
especially Oxfords, cotton trouserings, mixtures, flannelets, barchent, 
sateens, common woven colored goods called Florides and Caroline, 
linings, reps, cretonnes, mercerized goods, and towels. 

It will be noticed that the Italians are working their nearest fields — 
that is, the countries bordering on the Mediterranean — and South 
America, then India. In China, Australia, etc., they do little. Ar- 
gentina, while not near to Italy in miles, through numerous Italian 
steamship lines is as near to Genoa as Europe is to New York. 
Argentina is the most important country in South America, and its 
trade is over one-fourth that of the whole Southern Continent. The 
Italian emigrants go in larger numbers thereto than to any other 
country with the exception of the United States, and this has been a 
great factor in increasing the sale of Italian products in that country. 
Italy's main exports to Argentina are cotton manufactures, and their 
sales are increasing steadily. The official statistics of Argentina for 



102 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IN ITALY. 



1905 (as published in the Bolletino at Milan) show the following as the 
main cotton manufactures imported from Italy in that year: 



Article. 



Coarse yarns 

Ordinary yarns 

Special weaving yarns . . 
Yarn for wax matches . . 
Sewing thread on spools 

Gray goods 

White goods 

Printed goods 

Dyed goods 

Coverlids 

Towels 

Handkerchiefs 



Value. 



491, 

20, 

38, 

10, 

211, 

254, 

470, 

3,291, 

242, 

162, 

109, 



337 
491 
922 
530 
922 
956 
706 
120 
784 
167 
032 
520 



Article. 



Value. 



Made-up goods 

Lace and tulle 

Ribbons 

Table covers and napkins . . . 

Passementerie 

Packing linen 

Cords 

Coverlids of waste cotton. . . 

Socks 

Bags 

Total specified articles 



,244 
85, 812 
60, 369 
45, 094 
21,874 
19, 271 
16, 922 
11, 549 
10, 083 
5,260 



5,694,965 



Among other cotton manufactures sold were veils and head shawls, 
undershirts, padded coverlids, curtains, etc. Colored cloths form the 
largest proportion of the total, and include especially Oxfords, cheap 
woven colored goods called Florides and Caroline, cotton trouserings, 
stripes, diagonals, and similar goods, the bulk of these being cheap 
goods made of part American and part Indian cotton. 

EXPORTS TO TURKEY CREDIT TERMS AND AGENCIES. 

In Turkey the Italians have also been very active, especially in the 
last few years, and they have driven the American sheetings off the 
market, and displaced England in some lines. For instance, on cot- 
ton flannel, flannelets, barchents, and ordinary sateens the Italians 
at most places in Turkey have the most of the business. They sell 
large quantities of mercerized sateens at Smyrna and Beirut. They 
also do a large business there in linings, in cretonne, and in Oxfords, 
also a good business in printed cashmeres, printed crepe, Vichy 
(gingham), damasks, etc. 

In Asiatic Turkey flannelets and barchent are used for the long- 
robed outer garment in winter and prints in summer, the first being 
supplied by Italy and the latter by England. One of the main spe- 
cialities of Italy's export trade is printed napped goods, and most of 
these are split goods that are woven in double widths on the looms 
and afterwards split down the middle. Barchent is a cloth some- 
what similar to flannelet with one hard finished face on the outside 
and a napped face on the inside. It is preferred in Turkey to the 
regular flannelet. The bright and fast colors and the appearance of 
wool in these napped gods attract the native buyer. The Italians 
have gained the market because their goods are cheaper and, also, 
because they have studied the native taste, and their designs in this 
article are better than those of the English or German. The ordi- 
nary barchent is 65 to 70 centimeters (25.59 to 27.56 inches) wide and 
at present is quoted c. i. f. Constantinople at 55 centimes per meter 
(10.6 cents per 1.09 yards), three months credit, and 5 per cent dis- 
count. The Italians have displaced the American sheeting by offer- 
ing lower-priced Cabots which, in most cases, are made of inferior 
qualities or cotton. 

The long credit offered by the Italians has been of great help to 
them in gaining such a strong foothold in the Turkish market. They 
offer longer credits than any other nation on the market, not except- 
ing the Germans. Their system of traveling men is well organized, 



COTTON TEXTILE TKADE IN ITALY. 103 

and at Smyrna and other points the export houses maintain branch 
establishments, and by means of these they are enabled to quote in 
many cases "franco domicile/' which is a great inducement. 

TRADE WITH OTHER COUNTRIES. 

In Egypt the Italians have also gained a strong foothold, with 
their long credits and by catering to the native requirements. The 
tastes there change constantly, but as the Italian mills get out new 
designs every season in great profusion they are easily enabled to 
hold and increase the trade they have gained. 

In India also Italy does a good business in cottom manufactures, 
which is facilitated by direct steamship connections. For the year 
ended March 31, 1906 (the Indian fiscal year), I found that Italy 
supplied India with 1,029,465 pounds of yarn, which was more than 
the contributions of any other country outside of Great Britain. 
The yarn thus supplied was mostly medium fine numbers — that is, 
30s to 50s — and the majority of it colored yarns. For the same 
period Italy supplied India with cotton cloths to the value of 
$594,452. 

Italy's trade with the Philippines is also growing, the exports 
thereto during the fiscal year 1906 amounting to $122,829. Their 
exports to the Philippines include the cotton gauze goods, called 
betilles, so largely worn as waists by Filipino women, cheap woven 
colored goods, such as checks and stripes, and some finer goods, 
such as reps and fine-corded dress goods. 

Italy also ships a small quantity of goods to the United States. 
These include cotton trouserings for the Italian emigrants, and also 
some fancy goods ornamented with stripes and designs in artificial 
silk, and some embroidery. The cotton trouserings thus shipped are 
mostly split goods that are woven 120 centimeters (47.24 inches) 
wide, and split into about 24-inch widths. They are slightly napped 
on the wrong side. They are mostly about 14 by 14 ends per quarter 
inch and are invoiced for 1 to 1.2 francs per meter (19.3 to 23.2 cents 
per 1.09 yards), less 2 per cent discount. 

In an article, published in Italian papers, from the Italian com- 
mercial attache at Washington, he calls the attention of the Italians 
to American imports of cotton manufactures, especially of lace and 
embroideries, and says that the cheap labor of Italy, combined with 
the artistic instinct of the people, should enable them to develop 
such a business rapidly. Factories of this kind in Italy are few in num- 
ber at present, and mostly work on overflow orders from Switzer- 
land. The betilles and some other goods shipped from Italy are also 
made to order for Swiss exporters and shipped direct. 

AIDS TO ITALIAN FOREIGN BUSINESS. 

Italy's export of cotton goods has been greatly aided by the infor- 
mation published by the Cotton Industrial Association. This asso- 
ciation comprises all the larger manufacturers, as well as a good 
many small ones, and in its monthly paper prints trade items from 
its correspondents in the various countries and furnishes confiden- 
tial information direct to the manufacturers. This organization was 
founded in 1903, which was a year memorable in Italy for an econo- 
mic crisis, by a group of cotton manufacturers, who were convinced 
that the industry was nearing a very serious condition and felt the 



104 .COTTON TEXTILE TEADE IN ITALY. 

necessity of bettering it. In promoting the growth of this business 
it has been very successful. Its officially announced duties are to 
deal with mutual questions of interest to these who manufacture or 
deal in cotton; to better the conditions of buying and selling and 
correct irregularities in contracts and redress troubles; to procure 
telegraphic news of the principal cotton markets, and publish indus- 
trial news both foreign and national; to place at the disposal of the 
members a place for meetings for leisure and for holding weekly busi- 
ness meetings. The association besides keeps an office at the dis- 
posal of the members and provides apparatus for delicate measuring, 
etc. It procures samples of goods sold by its competitors in foreign 
countries, and also represents Italy in the International Association 
of Cotton Manufacturers. It has been of great help to Italian export- 
ers in putting them in touch with foreign buyers. 

The Italians have many travelers, and these men, as a rule, are 
good linguists, which enables them to get in direct touch with the peo- 
ple to whom they are sent. Very often the subagents are natives of 
the country. The Italians give sample books as required, give longer 
time than any of their competitors, will take small initial orders, 
will put on any description of mark, number, or lettering required, 
and in every way cater to the desires of the buyer. As a rule, the 
goods they sell are cheap goods, but they sell mainly in markets where 
cheapness is the main consideration, and in this way they displace 
the goods of other countries, even if better made. 

Some of the mills have also branched out on finer goods and have 
produced some very artistic designs, but their supply of highly skilled 
help does not enable them, as yet, to extend this very far. The use 
of artificial silk for ornamenting such goods is increasing. Most of 
this is imported from France, but some mills for making artificial 
silk on the Chardonnet system are now being installed and others 
planned. 

LEADING EXPORT COMPANIES. 

One of the most important of the export companies is the Society 
for Exportation and for the Italian-American Industry. This is a 
limited liability company, with a capital stock of 14,000,000 lire 
($2,702,000), entirely paid up, and has its headquarters at Milan, 
with branch offices at Buenos Aires, Sao Paulo, Valparaiso, and 
Lima. The foundations of this company were laid in 1887, and in 
that year the exportation of cotton manufactures from Italy to 
South America was instigated, a trade that has since grown into large 
proportions and is steadily increasing. This company handles the 
products of a large number of mills, including one of their own at 
Castrezzato, in Italy, but they have also found it profitable to branch 
out and erect mills in Argentina and Brazil. They now have at 
Buenos Aires a cotton mill and underclothing manufactory, employ- 
ing some 1,000 hands; at San Roque, Salto del Ytu, and Osasco, in 
Brazil, spinning, weaving, and dyeing establishments employing some 
2,000 hands, practically all of the operatives being Italians. This 
company confines itself mainly to South American trade. 

Another important export company is the United Italian Indus- 
tries for Exportation. This company has a wide range of activity 
and divides the work of its traveling men into west and east zones 



COTTON TEXTILE TRADE IX ITALY. 105 

as follows: (1) Mexico, Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nica- 
ragua, Costa Rico, Panama, the Antilles, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, 
Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, English and Dutch 
Guiana; (2) Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Java, Malacca, 
Burma, India, and South Africa. It employs a large number of 
traveling men, who make frequent trips, and some of whom are 
stationed permanently in the principal centers, so that the house is 
always in a position to know the requirements of its clients and the 
relative demand for merchandise. Other export companies confine 
themselves mainly to Turkey and the Balkans. 

ADVANTAGES OF ITALIAN MANUFACTURERS FREIGHT RATES. 

The total cost of a new mill in Italy is somewhat less than in the 
United States, but not sufficiently so as to give them any decided 
advantage in this respect. The wages are lower, but this is, in large 
part, counterbalanced by the fact that more women are employed, 
and the operatives in general are less efficient than in England or 
the United States. The cheapness with which they produce goods 
on most lines exported is due to the fact that the cost of the raw 
material is lowered by using mixtures of inferior cottons, that they 
size heavily wherever possible, and that the manufacture of split 
goods is general. These usages, added to the fact that the Italians 
carefully study the requirements of their foreign customers and cater 
to these requirements, give long time, and have personal representa- 
tives on the field, largely account for the increasing export of Italian 
cottons. 

The freight rates from Genoa to some of the points to which Italy 
ships cotton goods are as follows: To Buenos Aires, 35 lire per 
cubic meter ($6.76 per 35.316 cubic feet); to Beirut, 4.5 lire per 
quintal (87 cents per 220.4 pounds); to Piraeus, Smyrna, and Con- 
stantinople, 3 lire (57.9 cents) per quintal, which is $5.70 per ton. 
Italian cotton goods are mainly shipped from Genoa and Venice, with 
some from Naples. 

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